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Improving Traumatized Students Educational Outcomes by Shifting Away from Punitive and Towards Positive Discipline A TOOLKIT FOR LEGISLATORS DISTRICT ADMINISTRATORS PRINCIPALS AND EDUCATORS May 2018

FIFTEEN THOUSAND HOURS is the amount of time children spend in school from kindergarten to graduation With such a substantial amount of time schools with the support of legislators and the broader community can significantly influence their developmental trajectories To do so we must envision change to our schools based on the answers to two questions 1 1 What is the function of schooling to a society in crisis 2 To what extent can schools serve as an agent for the healthy development of children

Improving Traumatized Students Educational Outcomes by Shifting Away from Punitive and Towards Positive Discipline A Toolkit for Legislators District Administrators Principals and Educators This toolkit is designed to help stakeholders in our educational system advance current policies and practices in ways that will enable schools to better meet the cognitive emotional and behavioral needs of children and youth who have been exposed to traumatic stressors To do so this toolkit provides Relevant information on trauma and the development of children Recommendations for policy and evidence based practices that encourage system level change Guidance and resources to facilitate implementation TOOLKIT AUTHORS Micere Keels Founding Director of the TREP Project Associate Professor Department of Comparative Human Development University of Chicago Contact micere uchicago edu A scan of the literature completed by University of Chicago students enrolled in an educational inequality course in the fall of 2017 Thoughtful reviews and editing completed by TREP Project staff and doctoral research assistants This Toolkit and other resources on developing trauma responsive school systems are available online at TREPEducator org

TABLE OF CONTENTS OVERVIEW OF POLICY AND PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS 1 THE NEED FOR A TRAUMA RESPONSIVE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 2 Violence exposure negatively affects children s behavioral functioning 2 Trauma affects student learning 4 Concentrating large numbers of traumatized students in the same urban or rural schools can deteriorate school culture and climate 5 The evidence is clear Punitive and exclusionary discipline are ineffective 6 Educators need professional development to build their capacity to meet the cognitive emotional and behavioral needs of students coping with trauma 9 POLICY AND PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS 11 STATE LEVEL RECOMMENDATIONS 12 Recommendation 1 Require reporting of school level discipline data that has been disaggregated by key student characteristics such as race ethnicity poverty special education status gender and English proficiency 13 Recommendation 2 Provide targeted funding for professional development on trauma and trauma responsive educational practices and social and emotional learning 15 Recommendation 3 Specify the role of school resource officers and security staff and require certified training in child and youth development 17 Recommendation 4 Guide allocation of resources toward proactive staff such as counselors and social workers and away from reactive staff such as school resource officers and security staff 19 DISTRICT SCHOOL AND EDUCATOR RECOMMENDATIONS 21 Recommendation 1 Provide districtwide guidance regarding school discipline codes that rely on proactive and positive discipline include restorative practices and exclude zero tolerance policies 22 Recommendation 2 Build intentional parent family and community collaborations aimed at reducing children s exposure to violence and other traumatic stressors 24 Recommendation 3 Become knowledgeable of trauma and master educational practices that meet the cognitive emotional and behavioral needs of students who have been impacted by trauma 26 END NOTES 28

OVERVIEW OF POLICY AND PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS Meeting the developmental needs of students requires concerted effort from individuals at all levels of the educational system We recommend the following actions to help shift current policies and practices to be more trauma responsive for all students State Recommendations Require the reporting of discipline data that has been disaggregated by key student characteristics such as raceethnicity poverty special education status gender and English proficiency Provide targeted funding for professional development on trauma and trauma responsive educational practices Specify the role of school resource officers and security staff and require certified training in child and youth development Guide allocation of resources toward proactive staff such as counselors and social workers and away from reactive staff such as school resource officers and security staff District School and Educator Recommendations Guide design of school discipline codes to encourage proactive and positive discipline include restorative and remove zero tolerance policies Build intentional parent family and community collaborations aimed at reducing children s exposure to violence and other traumatic stressors Become knowledgeable of trauma and competent in trauma responsive educational practices that meet the cognitive emotional and behavioral needs of students exposed to traumatic stressors 1

THE NEED FOR A TRAUMA RESPONSIVE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM VIOLENCE EXPOSURE NEGATIVELY AFFECTS CHILDREN S BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONING According to the National Survey of Children s Exposure to Violence about four million children in the U S are exposed to violence each year and about half of those children experience lasting trauma from their exposure 3 Children who experience trauma are often left with psychological wounds that can linger long after the violent incident has passed which can inhibit their abilities to succeed in school Racial Ethnic Differences In Violence Exposure Socioeconomic Differences In Violence Exposure Figure 1 Prevalence of Exposure to Violence by Various Status Characteristics Note Data based on the Developmental Victimization Survey conducted between December 2002 and February 2003 which assessed the experiences of a nationally representative sample of 2 030 children age 2 to 17 4 2

As the figures above show no group of children is completely immune to violence exposure However as the figures indicate lower income and racial ethnic minority children have a significantly higher likelihood of experiencing and witnessing violence The evidence connecting violence exposure to a host of negative life outcomes such as poor physical and mental health lower levels of completed schooling and workplace productivity indicates that it is a serious public health concern 5 Direct violence is not the only experience that leaves lasting psychological trauma Trauma can also result from Chronic household instability o Parent family substance abuse o Parent family mental illness o Domestic violence o Parent family incarceration o Conflictual divorce Psychological physical and sexual abuse Physical and emotional neglect Institutional violence o Involvement with child welfare system o Involvement with juvenile justice system o Lack of affordable housing or homelessness Structural violence is the harm individuals families and communities experience from the economic and social structure social institutions and relations of power privilege and inequity that may harm people and communities by preventing them from getting their basic needs met The resulting trauma is a psychological injury resulting from protracted exposure to prolonged social and interpersonal trauma without the resources to escape When children experience a single overwhelmingly traumatic event or chronic loss of safety fear or instability their progression through critical developmental stages may be delayed or stalled completely 6 For example children and adolescents exposed to neighborhood violence are more Comments made by Howard likely to have difficulty processing and controlling their Pinderhughes at a roundtable meeting on emotions and behaviors than those who grow up in safe Community Violence as a communities Additionally they are more likely to struggle Population Health Issue 2 with regulating themselves in response to the emotions and behaviors of those around them 7 This means that a 15 yearold who has undergone a number of traumatic experiences may appear to have the emotional maturity of an average 10 year old However because psychological trauma is often invisible educators may find the behavior unexplainably frustrating and punish the student for not meeting age appropriate behavioral expectations 3

TRAUMA AFFECTS STUDENT LEARNING Without adult assisted opportunities for processing traumatic experiences students may not be able to effectively engage with learning They may be physically present in the classroom but their thoughts are elsewhere A school day for traumatized children may be filled with triggers reminders that bring past experiences into the present making the child feel as though they are experiencing the traumatic event again Traumatized children can be triggered by a range of circumstances such as Loud noises Physical touch Aggressive authority figures Physical gestures that are perceived as threatening Sudden changes in routine Confusing chaotic or ambiguous interactions and environments Anniversaries of the original event s With so many triggers students may find it difficult to follow instructions from their teachers carry out classroom expectations for self management and negotiate the numerous and sometimes ambiguous interpersonal interactions with teachers and peers When people experience physical trauma they are often left with a visible wound that alerts others of their hurt and signals their need for rehabilitative care However when people experience psychological trauma often the wound is invisible and those around them may not realize their need for rehabilitative interpersonal interactions The symptoms of psychological trauma such as intrusive thoughts flashbacks internal confusion rage about what happened and feelings of hopelessness about one s future are not easily observable In the absence of opportunities that encourage positive coping skills community violence exposed adolescents may begin to believe that aggressive and violent responses are normal and effective which can lead to increased aggression and misbehavior and negatively impact their academic performance 8 Furthermore students who display such behaviors often disrupt learning in the classroom and become a source of distraction to their peers These challenging behaviors negatively affect a wide range of social dynamics in the school and can degrade relationships among as well as between students parents teachers and administrators 4

The American Academy of Pediatrics Cycle of Violence Predictably some children who have been chronically exposed to violence learn to resolve their own conflicts in a violent manner Others appear to become desensitized to violence and the pain and distress of others Some retreat into a shell avoiding people and the world around them These children with long term exposure are at an increased risk for Behavioral psychological and physical problems Academic failure Alcohol and substance use Delinquent acts Adult criminality When children repeat the violence they have experienced they perpetuate a cycle of violence that can continue throughout future generations Educational institutions are uniquely positioned to provide traumatized students with rehabilitative interpersonal interactions and mitigate the well documented negative adult outcomes that are associated with violence exposure during childhood 9 Schools that attend to students social and emotional development in concert with their academic development and provide access to mental health workers in the school building Become centers of rehabilitative care located within the community Help eliminate the major obstacle of transportation to appointments during the day while parents family are at work Reduce the stigma that often accompanies mental health treatment CONCENTRATING LARGE NUMBERS OF TRAUMATIZED STUDENTS IN THE SAME URBAN OR RURAL SCHOOLS CAN DETERIORATE SCHOOL CULTURE AND CLIMATE Maintaining a positive school climate and culture is extremely difficult when increasing numbers of children coping with violence exposure are concentrated into a given school One student s aggressive or emotional outburst can trigger the trauma of another student and amplify the negative effects of violence exposure at a particular school 10 Students traumas can also have negative effects on educators The combination of scarce resources and high demand can leave educators feeling overburdened and demoralized placing them at an increased risk of compassion fatigue vicarious traumatization and burnout 11 This includes having received minimal preparation for managing challenging student behaviors being asked to do more with less because of persistently under resourcing our schools and feeling constrained by restrictive and punitive discipline policies 5

Violence exposure degrades the development of trust within schools Students who have been repeatedly exposed to violence may struggle to trust others and teachers who feel fearful at school may limit interactions with certain students 12 In the absence of trust the climate of a school erodes making it harder for everyone in the school to feel a sense of belonging 13 The stakes are high for schools serving large numbers of students who have been exposed to traumatic experiences A high concentration of disadvantage can lead to a severely toxic culture that can shut down learning in the building Developing and sustaining a developmentally supportive school culture however is possible when policymakers administrators and educators work together to reform existing policies and practices Developing and sustaining a developmentally supportive school culture is therefore essential In addition to ensuring physical safety schools must also ensure psychological safety protection from derogatory statements that negatively affect one s sense of self and emotional safety support that enables taking learning risks and failing without feeling like a failure as these elements foster greater investment and engagement in learning 14 Schools with safe climates Promote social emotional ethical and civic skills in concert with academic skills Maintain positive teacher student interactions Provide students a safe space a strong sense of belonging and engaging opportunities Support high expectations for student achievement along with a comprehensive system to address barriers to learning Communicate clear appropriate and consistent expectations and measured consequences to address challenging student behaviors Implement policies to facilitate parent family and community involvement and engagement Foster collaborative relationships between and among administrators and staff Work to decrease teacher burnout and turnover and increase teacher satisfaction THE EVIDENCE IS CLEAR PUNITIVE AND EXCLUSIONARY DISCIPLINE ARE INEFFECTIVE Gun violence is an ever present threat in too many urban neighborhoods and in the wake of youth shootings and homicides are traumatized siblings friends and peers 15 Predictably many of these children arrive to school with varying levels of emotional challenges However very few enter schools that teach them how to regulate the complex cognitive emotional and behavioral dysregulation caused by trauma Many schools instead respond with punitive and exclusionary discipline when these students are unable to meet behavioral expectations 6

Another punitive response is funneling students coping with trauma into special education which does little to develop their self regulation and often exacerbates disadvantage by inschool hyper segregation of students who trigger each other s histories of trauma 16 Exclusionary discipline is often thought of as punishment that will motivate behavior change however it has been proven ineffective largely because it teaches nothing and carries several disadvantages 17 Additionally it is the students with weaker academic performance who are most likely to receive exclusionary discipline taking instructional time away from those who need it most Research shows that increased use of police presence and zero tolerance policies can increase the likelihood that students receiving such punishments will exhibit acting out behaviors 18 Exclusionary discipline is associated with negative educational outcomes including academic failure grade retention and greater likelihood of dropping out as students often miss important educational opportunities and are stigmatized by staff and peers Furthermore exclusionary discipline affects all students in the building not only the students who receive it Schools with higher levels of exclusionary discipline have a more negative school climate that can harm the educational experiences of students not exhibiting behavioral challenges 19 Given the many negative effects of exclusionary discipline it is particularly disturbing that it is primarily used for factors other than behaviors that threaten the safety of peers and staff 20 Figure 2 School Disciplinary Actions by Disciplinary Infraction Adapted from What Do We Know About School Discipline Reform 21 Even more disturbing than the ineffectiveness of punitive policies and the collateral damage they create is that punitive policies are not applied evenly Minority youth particularly Black youth are subject to greater exclusionary punishments than their White peers even though 7

evidence shows that Black students do not misbehave at higher rates than other students 22 By disproportionately punishing minority students disciplinary systems compound existing societal inequalities Many researchers and policy makers have concluded that the negative consequences of using such policies are disproportionately severe and uniquely far reaching for Black and Latinx students 23 Figure 3 School Disciplinary Actions by Race Ethnicity Adapted from What Do We Know About School Discipline Reform 24 There also appears to be a broader school wide effect when it comes to the association between race ethnicity and harsh discipline Even after accounting for a host of factors including students actual rates of disciplinary infractions schools with higher proportions of Black students are significantly more likely to utilize punitive and exclusionary discipline 25 Although the emphasis on zero tolerance policies is fading what remains is a culture of control that manifests as the presence of police officers in the school criminalization of misbehavior metal detectors random locker and bag searches and strict uniform requirements These authoritarian social control practices are primarily in schools attended by urban students of color and work against their developing a strong sense of school belonging because they disrupt the school environment foster antagonistic relationships between and among students and staff and incite emotional distress and lowered self esteem 26 When police are in schools student misbehavior becomes criminalized because discipline problems that were previously handled by school staff are delegated to the school resource officer 27 This creates a pathway from the school to the juvenile justice system rather than a pathway that directs students exhibiting challenging behaviors to the counselor and then integrated back into the classroom 8

Given the increased rhetoric of evidenced based approaches to education the decision to continue disciplinary policies that have been proven to be detrimental to student success runs counter to the larger educational mission of building successful pathways for all students EDUCATORS NEED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT TO BUILD THEIR CAPACITY TO MEET THE COGNITIVE EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL NEEDS OF STUDENTS COPING WITH TRAUMA Public schools and particularly schools serving highly disadvantaged student populations do not have the resources to ensure that every student has time with a counselor but they can provide every student with a teacher who understands how stress and trauma affect student functioning and is attentive to students social and emotional learning needs Adverse childhood experiences ACEs which includes abuse and neglect witnessing violence and parental substance abuse has been established as one root cause of negative adult outcomes 28 Educational failure is one pathway through which ACEs has negative effects 29 Figure 4 Percent of Students with Academic Concerns by ACEs Exposure Based on the Spokane Childhood ACEs Study30 The signs and symptoms of ACEs exposure and trauma can manifest in the classroom as Hyperarousal Inability to remain seated Tension irritability and impatience Anger outbursts and aggression Defiance and Impulsivity Exaggerated startle response Excessive chatter Hypoarousal Daydreaming spacing out Forgetting assignments Forgetting material previously mastered Lack of motivation Not processing material just discussed Lethargy and sleeping in class 9

Recognizing students who are struggling to cope with traumatic experiences is the first step to improving their educational experiences Coupled with engaging instruction the utilization of evidence based strategies for minimizing challenging behaviors and teaching self regulation can place students attempting to cope with traumatic stressors on the path to success Compared to less thoughtful punitive discipline proactive and restorative discipline are more time consuming during initial periods of implementation however once established they save time and resources by diffusing problems early and preventing future acting out behaviors as well as maintaining higher levels of school belonging and engagement 31 Most discipline codes tend to focus on policies for punishing what students should not do rather than on policies for teaching and rewarding what students should do In addition to perpetuating cycles of isolation and aggression these reactionary negative and exclusionary sanctions tend to be used repeatedly with the same students indicating that their use is not effective in preventing future discipline problems By adding proactive policies such as those associated with Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports PBIS to discipline codes administrators are setting a new tone to limit the use of suspension and expulsion Revised discipline codes can articulate a change in school philosophy and policy from reactionary to prosocial and encourage a shift in teacher action from reactive to proactive 32 Moving toward increased use of restorative practice requires a shift in how misbehavior is viewed shifting away from viewing misbehavior as punishment opportunities toward viewing it as teaching opportunities Punitive Restorative Misbehavior defined as breaking school rules Misbehavior defined as harm done to one person group by another Accountability defined as passive recipient of imposed consequence Accountability defined as understanding impact of actions taking responsibility for choices and repairing harm Past oriented focus on what happened and establishment of blame or guilt Future oriented focus on problem solving and problem prevention Adversarial relationship and process with authority figure who decides penalty Dialogue with harmed individual s offender and authority figures School community as spectators School community involved in facilitating restoration Attention to relationships and mutuality Attention and adherence to rules Note Reproduced from Jefferson County Public Schools Restorative Justice Practices in Schools Review of the Literature 33 10

POLICY AND PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS The policy and practice recommendations offered in this Toolkit are fundamentally undergirded by the belief that schools should use an instructional framework for discipline 34 Under an instructional framework students challenging behaviors are seen as opportunities to understand the underlying problem diagnose the error and then respond with corrective feedback that builds their capacity for self regulation State Level Recommendations Require reporting of discipline data that has been disaggregated by student characteristics such as race ethnicity poverty special education status gender and English proficiency Provide targeted funding for professional development on trauma and trauma responsive educational practices Specify the role of school resource officers and security staff and require certified training in child and youth development Guide allocation of resources toward proactive staff such as counselors and social workers and away from reactive staff such as school resource officers and security staff District School and Educator Recommendations Provide districtwide guidance to encourage proactive and positive discipline include restorative and remove zero tolerance policies Build intentional parent family and community collaborations aimed at reducing children s exposure to violence and other traumatic stressors Become knowledgeable of trauma and competent in trauma responsive educational practices that meet the cognitive emotional and behavioral needs of students exposed to traumatic stressors The benefits relative to the costs are clear By enacting proactive recommendations we save future financial and human costs such as special education services crime and violence increased policing increased physical and mental healthcare including emergency room usage as well as lost productivity wages and tax revenue 11

STATE LEVEL RECOMMENDATIONS 12

Recommendation 1 Require reporting of school level discipline data that has been disaggregated by key student characteristics such as race ethnicity poverty special education status gender and English proficiency Well just like if they see a group of Black kids they automatically assume they re doing something bad Like if you like standing in the hallway with a group of Black kids in one spot and the White kids in another spot the administrator will tend to come to the Black kids if I m walking to the nurse I m automatically stopped I m questioned about what I m doing but then you see all the other White kids just walk out of the school 35 More than 25 years of national state and district level research show that Black and Latinx students are two to three times more likely to be suspended than White students 36 They are also overrepresented in other disciplinary measures including office referrals detentions and expulsions Many used to argue that these were socioeconomic rather than racial ethnic differences but a 2018 U S Government Accountability Office report shows that disproportionate discipline persists regardless of the type of disciplinary action level of school poverty or type of public school these students attended 37 Collection analysis and reporting disaggregated discipline data is vital to ensuring a more equitable school system for all students Publishing school level discipline data in the ways that we publish academic accountability data will enable us to hold districts and schools accountable for equitable treatment of students Additionally principals themselves report that data based decision making at the school level is more effective than simply doling out punitive measures tracking behavior and discipline allows for targeted interventions that lead to longer term solutions 38 Important guidance can be gleaned from related policy examples The state of California passed the Keep Kids in School Act a law requiring schools identified for improvement to report suspensions expulsions police arrests and referrals to law enforcement disaggregated by race ethnicity and other factors The state of Washington passed RCW 28A 600 490 a law requiring district level discipline task forces that collect data for disciplinary actions based on revised standards for causes of student disciplinary actions The district level reporting requirements of Illinois Public Act 98 1102 and the school level reporting guidelines of the No Child Left Behind Act and can be used as models for reporting disaggregated information on disciplinary practices 13

MODEL LANGUAGE STATEWIDE DISCIPLINE ACCOUNTABILITY REPORTING LAW The district shall include in its annual school level report cards to the state i information in the aggregate on classroom school and district use of punitive and exclusionary discipline i e detentions in or out of school suspension and expulsion at each grade level disaggregated by race ethnicity gender disability status migrant status English proficiency and status as economically disadvantaged except that such disaggregation shall not be required in a case in which the number of students in a category is insufficient to yield statistically reliable information or the results would reveal personally identifiable information about an individual student ii information that provides a comparison at each grade level between disciplinary actions received by each group of students described in the subsection above iii the most recent 2 year trend in disciplinary action received by each group of students at each grade level Additional Resources Discipline Rates A Data and Analytics Tool Published by State of Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction Addressing the Root Causes of Disparities in School Discipline An Educator s Action Planning Guide Published by the National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments Are We Closing the School Discipline Gap Published by the Civil Rights Project Improving School Discipline Data Collection and Reporting A Status Report for the 2013 14 School Year Published by the West Virginia Department of Education Forum Guide to Crime Violence and Discipline Incident Data Published by the National Forum on Education Statistics School Discipline Data Published by The Children s Defense Fund 14

Recommendation 2 Provide targeted funding for professional development on trauma and trauma responsive educational practices and social and emotional learning The need and demand for SEL in the classroom is growing and so is the science behind it But mainstream education has yet to make it foundational to the learning and teaching process First pre service teachers need SEL content next the SEL mentoring of pre service teachers during their student teaching and finally continued mentoring for at least the first two years of in service teaching Until learning and practicing SEL skills is mandated in teacher education programs many teachers are on their own to seek out this information 39 Schools are the primary mental health assessment and service institutions for children particularly for children in economically disadvantaged families and neighborhoods 40 Nationally over 70 of children in need of mental health treatment do not receive services 41 Even though most schools don t have the resources needed to meet students needs for individual or small group counselling that would be provided by school psychologists and social workers by building the capacity of teachers to engage in trauma responsive educational practices schools can play a significant role in reducing the negative effects of exposure to traumatic stressors Developing the social and emotional skills that are embedded in the Common Core curriculum to achieve proficiency in each academic area is an important endeavor 42 Persistence in math requires self efficacy and the ability to manage stress and regulate emotions In English character analysis requires labeling one s and others emotions and reflecting on how current choices affect the future Essentially the development of students social and emotional skills is not a distraction from but a contributor to academic achievement Despite the fact that 83 of teachers report wanting training in social and emotional learning very few teacher training programs address this need and even fewer offer a related certification 43 Requests for this training are especially prevalent in alternative or charter schools where teacher duties stretch well beyond the certifications they carry 44 Facilitating some level of mandatory social and emotional training and professional development and offering specialized social and emotional learning certifications should be included as a priority for the billions of federal state and local funds spent on professional development State policy is critical for shaping the social and emotional learning standards that schools are required to meet in their work with students 45 The Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning s 2018 report found that only eight states have SEL standards for grades K12 eight are developing guidelines and 16 have related web pages with information for educators 46 Their Collaborating States Initiative assists states that want to develop policies or guidelines to support implementation of quality social and emotional learning 15

EFFECTIVE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Professional development efforts should adhere to the following standards of practice Occur over time and preferably be ongoing The largest struggle for teachers is not learning new approaches but implementing them Traditional professional development is ineffective because it doesn t support teachers during the implementation stage of learning Include access to coaches or mentors Coaches are highly effective in helping teachers implement a new skill During coaching teachers work with a master educator before during and after a lesson getting feedback on their implementation of a newly learned teaching skill Supported by school based professional learning communities Schools need communities of teachers who serve as peer coaches This enables teachers to be innovators of strategies tailored to their population of students Delivered in the context of the teacher s subject area Regardless of whether teachers are working with coaches or in professional learning communities teachers need to be working with the content they teach More guidance can be found in Teaching the Teachers Effective professional development Additional Resources Encouraging Social and Emotional Learning in the Context of New Accountability Published by Learning Policy Institute Social and Emotional Learning Opportunities for Massachusetts Lessons for the Nation Published by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Social and Emotional Learning Coaching Toolkit Published by SEL Solutions at American Institutes for Research Social and Emotional Learning in Schools from Programs to Strategies Published by Society for Research in Child Development How to Close the Social Emotional Gap in Teacher Training Published by Greater Good Magazine Key Features of High Quality Policies and Guidelines to Support Social and Emotional Learning Published by the Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning 16

Recommendation 3 Specify the role of school resource officers and security staff and require certified training in child and youth development There are about 19 000 police officers stationed in schools nationwide and stories of their school discipline disasters regularly cross Mo Canady s desk Canady the executive director of the National Association of School Resource Officers which offers specialized training to school resource officers says The first thing I do is search our database to see Did this person come through our training And the answer is consistently no 47 Approaching student misbehavior with punitive legal actions such as arrest can have grave repercussions for students futures not only because juvenile justice system involvement has negative developmental effects but also because the students become negatively labeled 48 Disproportionate placement of police in primarily inner city schools with large minority populations leads to an unequal application of the law because students at those schools experience almost automatic police involvement while other schools have the space and time to exercise more discretion 49 Researchers and policymakers increasingly believe that the larger presence of school resource officers on school campuses is what accounts for the finding that despite declining incidences of crime and violence in schools since the 1990s arrests and referrals to the juvenile justice system are increasing 50 Because the vast majority of disciplinary infractions can be addressed and have for generations been addressed without the intervention of school resource officers schools should have restrictive policies about when police can become involved with student discipline Research shows that increasing the number of school resource officers in schools does not make students feel safer and officers often lack the training that would enable them to work with students exhibiting challenging behaviors in ways that are developmentally supportive Simply increasing the number of school resource officers without considering other factors like enhanced training setting specific goals and missions for their work and also increasing the social work staff in the building will not have the desired effect of improving students outcomes 51 Schools are first and foremost educational spaces and the expectations we have for educators to satisfy rigorous certification requirements tailored to the task of working with children should also apply to school resource officers Because school resource officers receive their primary training from police academies becoming a school resource officer should include unlearning or compartmentalizing policing techniques that are inappropriate and harmful in dealing with students 52 For these reasons states should require certified evidence based training for school resource officers to ensure that they are well equipped to react and support the students entrusted to their care 17

MODEL LANGUAGE TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION STANDARDS FOR SCHOOL RESOURCE OFFICERS Before being appointed as a school resource officer SRO an individual must have i successfully completed the minimum training requirements established for law enforcement officers and received at least forty hours of approved developmentally appropriate SRO training ii the school district will provide time for their school principals or their designees and the assigned SROs to attend three two hour citywide approved developmentally appropriate SRO training meetings per year one at the beginning of the school year and once during each semester iii approved developmentally appropriate SRO training may include topical areas such as child and adolescent development and psychology age appropriate responses cultural competence restorative justice techniques special accommodations for students with disabilities practices proven to improve school climate and the creation of safe spaces for lesbian gay bisexual transgender and questioning students Additional Resources Policing in Schools Developing a Governance Document for School Resource Officers in K 12 Schools Published by the American Civil Liberties Union Safe School based Enforcement through Collaboration Understanding and Respect State and Local Policy Rubric Published by the U S Department of Education A Toolkit for California Law Enforcement Policing Today s Youth Published by the Police Foundation Role of the School Resource Officer Tutorial Published by School Safety Net 18

Recommendation 4 Guide allocation of resources toward proactive staff such as counselors and social workers and away from reactive staff such as school resource officers and security staff At the end of January 2018 a seven year old Latinx boy in Miami Florida was arrested and led away from his school in handcuffs School officials alleged that he had been playing with his food was scolded reacted badly and ended up attacking his teacher That s not great behavior but he s a small child and posed no real risk Rather than asking why the incident escalated and how they could change the environment to avoid such incidents school police simply took him to prison 53 Currently schools are staffed with many more school resource officers than social workers in a misguided reversal of the role of preventative versus reactive staff in a school s ecosystem A 2016 national examination of public school staffing data found that there are more school resource officers and security staff than there are counseling staff in four out of the 10 largest public school districts in the U S including three of the five largest districts 54 Houston had 1 175 students per counselor but only 785 students per school resource officer Chicago Public Schools had 1 416 security staff compared to 1 056 counselors and social workers in primary and secondary schools Imagine the difference if those numbers were reversed An examination of educational spending in Texas found that school districts spent almost three times as much on security services than on social work services and urban districts spent more of their overall budget on security expenditures compared to suburban districts 55 These higher poverty urban districts are exactly the districts in which social workers are severely lacking relative to the level of need presented by students Overtly criminalized and punitive school environments often characterized by police officers in schools metal detectors and random locker searches can create a culture in which routine discipline practices shift from being handled by school officials to being handled by law enforcement Such practices contribute to the perpetuation of the school to prison pipeline in which students are first exposed to the criminal or juvenile justice system by means of their school s disciplinary policies 56 School social workers play a very different role in the lives of students who have been exposed to trauma or other adverse life experiences that can lead to acting out behaviors 57 Social work and counseling staff are particularly helpful in addressing the underlying social and emotional needs that may be the cause of acting out behavior 19

OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION The Illinois Safe Schools and Healthy Learning Environment Act creates an optional grant program for school districts that wish to reallocate funding for school based law enforcement personnel toward restorative justice programs school psychologists social workers other mental and behavioral health specialists and other strategies for creating safe and healthy learning environments Districts should implement hiring policies that prioritize hiring social worker and counseling staff as school resource officers naturally leave their positions Although this is a longer term strategy it is a feasible action plan to transition schools from increasingly relying on school resource officers for behavioral remediation to relying on social and emotional staff for preventative action Additionally through the implementation of State Level Recommendation 3 listed above regarding developmentally appropriate training for school resource officers all school staff should increase their competency in responding to student acting out behaviors in developmentally supportive ways This is critical for ensuring that schools are places where students feel educated rather than policed Additional Resources Teachers or Guards The Cost of School Security Published by School Business Affairs Safe School based Enforcement through Collaboration Understanding and Respect SECURe Published by the U S Department of Education Education Under Arrest The Case Against Police in Schools Published by Justice Policy Institute The School To Court Pipeline Where Does Your State Rank Published by the Center for Investigative Reporting Seeding Change in School Discipline The Move from Zero Tolerance to Support Published by the American Federation of Teachers Advancing School Discipline Reform Published by the National Association of State Boards of Education Guiding Principles A Resource Guide for Improving School Climate and Discipline Published by the U S Department of Education 20

DISTRICT SCHOOL AND EDUCATOR RECOMMENDATIONS 21

Recommendation 1 Provide districtwide guidance regarding school discipline codes that rely on proactive and positive discipline include restorative practices and exclude zerotolerance policies Many New Orleans public schools operated under a no excuses strict discipline model in the immediate post Hurricane Katrina era With better understanding of its negative effects several of these schools are now working to become more trauma informed to better address the needs of their students Students in New Orleans exhibit rates of PTSD that are three times the national average nearly 50 have dealt with homicide in some way and 40 are below the poverty level As one principal on the forefront of change notes A lot of times teachers want students punished because they say you ve wronged me as a teacher But remove yourself from the situation and think about what that student needs Even the students who give teachers the most grief want to be here 58 Punitive discipline holds little promise for improving student misbehavior and school climate Removing students from the classroom as punishment often through suspension or expulsion is harmful to students who may already be struggling academically 59 One of the first steps in reforming district wide discipline policies is decreasing the use of zero tolerance policies exclusionary discipline and criminalization of student behavior 60 This must be coupled with the addition of policies and training on practices that must be implemented when punitive and exclusionary discipline are eliminated With the removal of zero tolerance policies school administrators should actively implement positive proactive and restorative discipline practices to ensure that staff have an effective replacement discipline plan Positive proactive and restorative discipline are based on principles of social and emotional learning and have convincing evidence of improving school climate reducing aggression and acting out behaviors and increasing the display of pro social behaviors 61 Positive and proactive discipline utilizes preventative actions to decrease the number of behavioral errors and restorative discipline maintains the school belonging of students who have committed disciplinary infractions When students are engaged in restorative discipline practices they feel that they have a larger stake and a voice in their educational experiences 62 As Voices of Youth in Chicago Education note staff and students pay a high cost when schools rely on punitive discipline which can lead to increased violence in schools by damaging the positive student teacher relationships that are the foundation for a safe school climate 63 Students need to experience their schools as safe welcoming and supportive environments in which they have the opportunity to make mistakes and learn from those mistakes 22

TRAUMA RESPONSIVE DISCIPLINE The National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges state that trauma informed discipline involves acknowledging the role trauma may have in behavior and identifying practices that will provide appropriate consequences while promoting healthier behavior in the future Examples include Disciplinary practices involve more than simply isolating students from peers Disciplinary infractions are handled in a timely manner that is consistent with the standards outlined by the school Restorative solutions e g restorative circles are employed to foster a positive and communicative school environment Signs outlining school rules or expectations are posted throughout the school to remind students to be safe respectful and responsible There is a designated room or space where students are sent after disruptive outbursts to engage in mindfulness practices and reflect on their recent behavior Additional Resources Educator Toolkit How to Fix School Discipline Published by the Fix School Discipline Collaborative Positive School Discipline Course for School Leaders Published by the Education Development Center The School Discipline Consensus Report Published by the Council of State Governments Justice Center Climate Change Implementing School Discipline Practices That Create a Positive School Climate Published by the Alliance for Excellent Education Instead of Suspension Alternative Strategies for School Discipline Published by Duke Center for Child and Family Policy and Duke Law School School Climate Guide for District Policymakers and Education Leaders Published by the National School Climate Center Restorative Practices Fostering Healthy Relationships Promoting Positive Discipline in Schools Published by the Schott Foundation for Public Education Restorative Practices Whole School Implementation Guide Published by San Francisco Unified School District 23

Recommendation 2 Build intentional parent family and community collaborations aimed at reducing children s exposure to violence and other traumatic stressors Several schools have successfully made families a vital part of the fight against violence Parents can be seen at all times in nearly all areas of the school they attend conferences speak to classes substitute and volunteer 64 Tina Kandakai s examination of factors influencing violence in schools found that parent teacher communication was a concern for about 70 of urban mothers 65 Mothers were concerned about teachers ability to recognize problems that could lead to violence and to communicate these concerns to parents Contrary to myths most parents including parents of children who are exhibiting challenging behaviors at school want and need to be included in the development and implementation of school violence prevention programs There is a substantial body of evidence showing that family engagement improves students math and reading proficiency academic achievement attendance and is associated with lower levels of behavior problems 66 Now attention is also being given to engaging family and community members in advancing students social and emotional development Particularly the importance of parent engagement and collaboration in reducing children s exposure to traumatic stressors and increasing the number of supportive adults that can help children cope with challenging life experiences 67 Several school based trauma interventions such as the Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools CBITS have a parent component that adds to the effectiveness of the intervention The parent component of CBITS builds parenting skills relevant to trauma exposure and stress related to poverty 68 This is critical because exposure to traumatic stressors and trauma are often passed down through generations of families 69 There are good models for how to engage families when needed to implement individualized interventions but few that provide strategies for the regular involvement of families in school wide interventions aimed at preventing problems by decreasing risk factors strengthening protective factors and building resilience 70 However there is strong evidence that parents including parents with several characteristics of disadvantage respond positively to being actively invited and enabled to participate in school engagement opportunities 71 To accomplish this parents need to be actively recruited and consistently encouraged by school personnel With effort schools can become an access point for families to learn about parenting child development and children s mental health 72 The deep knowledge that families and community members have about students life experiences needs and assets can be especially helpful for administrators and teachers many of whom do not live in the neighborhoods in which high poverty schools are located 24

GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR ADVANCING FAMILY ENGAGEMENT Are our engaged families representative of the diversity of our student population How can we best solicit input from families about the intervention choices What families do we need to work the hardest to reach and what insights can they offer What can we learn from families that are involved about how to reach less involved families What community agencies do family members have connections with and how can they help us engage those organizations What is most important to share about interventions and what are effective ways to share it How involved does the school want families to be in implementing interventions More details available in the School Climate Improvement Action Guide for Working with Families Additional Resources A New Wave of Evidence The Impact of School Family and Community Connections on Student Achievement Published by Southwest Educational Development Laboratory Using Trauma Sensitive Strategies to Support Family Engagement and Effective Collaboration Published by the Center for Appropriate Dispute Resolution in Special Education Family and Community Engagement in Addressing Childhood Trauma Published by the Coalition for Community Schools A Trauma Sensitive Toolkit for Caregivers of Children Published by the Spokane Regional Health District Creating Trauma Informed Family Driven Systems of Care Published by Thrive Aligning and Integrating Family Engagement in Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports Published by the Technical Assistance Center on PBIS Best Practices in Engaging Families in Child and Youth Mental Health Published by the Ontario Centre of Excellence for Child and Youth Mental Health 25

Recommendation 3 Become knowledgeable of trauma and master educational practices that meet the cognitive emotional and behavioral needs of students who have been impacted by trauma The South Bronx is home to a transformative school One third of the students at Haven Academy are in foster care another third under the watchful eye of New York s Administration of Child Services and the rest reside in neighborhoods with high levels of poverty and violence All have experienced trauma and instability and are prone to extreme behavioral outbursts and academic disengagement In the face of those challenges teachers at Haven Academy are learning how to successfully manage their classrooms and keep students engaged in learning To achieve this the school is equipped with social workers behavior and learning specialists and teachers who have received trauma informed training 73 While schools like Haven Academy have not completely solved challenges of educating students exposed to trauma their success meeting the cognitive emotional and behavioral needs of some of the country s most vulnerable children stands as a model and proof of the benefits of schools staffed by educators who are knowledgeable of trauma and utilize trauma responsive educational practices Educators receive limited pre service training and subsequent in service professional development on classroom management even less on how to integrate social and emotional learning into their instructional plans and almost none on how to recognize and respond to students who are coping with traumatic stressors Professional development for administrators teachers and other school staff has been identified as pivotal in catalyzing the implementation and maintenance of change 74 With focused professional development teachers will be more able to effectively identify students who are exhibiting signs of trauma and less likely to label them as defiant and oppositional or disengaged and unmotivated In addition to caring for their students teachers themselves need to be supported in learning how to cope with the stresses of working with traumatized children Currently 50 of teachers will leave the profession in their first five years due to lack of training and the stress of managing a classroom 75 However when teachers feel equipped to be a support for students they can help facilitate more positive outcomes for youth and for their professional careers 76 The changes that trauma causes in brain structure and chemistry and the cascade of emotional and behavioral dysregulation don t have to be permanent Children s brains have a substantial ability to adapt and change which means that with the right developmental supports post traumatic growth is possible For this to happen educators must become aware of how students are affected by trauma and have access to training on the educational practices that can foster recovery and resilience 26

CREATING SAFE SCHOOLS WITHIN UNSAFE NEIGHBORHOODS The need for safety has long been established as a foundational need that must be attended to before more abstract aspects of self and interpersonal development can flourish The way educators utilize their power to discipline students can ether increase or decrease their sense of safety at school One option is the utilization of relational discipline which is grounded in research showing that positive student teacher relationships not punitive measures are most effective in gaining compliance while also supporting students abilities to meet classroom expectations Relational discipline is Built on teachers genuine desire to understand students experiences in and outside of school Built on a foundation of mutual understanding of care for the student and their success Based on a positive relationship that is initiated and maintained by the teacher A school wide process individual teachers invite support from other staff in the building with whom a student may have stronger relationships Additional Resources Helping Traumatized Children Learn Published by Trauma and Learning Policy Initiative Creating Sanctuary in the School Published by Journal for a Just and Caring Education Healing the Hurt Trauma Informed Approaches to the Health of Boys and Young Men of Color Published by the California Endowment Calmer Classrooms A Guide to Working with Traumatized children Published by the Child Safety Commissioner The Heart of Learning and Teaching Compassion Resiliency and Academic Success Published by Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction Child Trauma Toolkit for Educators Published by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network Optimum Learning Environments for Traumatized Children Published by Jasper Mountain Hope for Children and Families 27

END NOTES 1 Garmezy N 1991 Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty American Behavioral Scientist 34 4 416 430 2 National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine 2017 Community Violence as a Population Health Issue Proceedings of a Workshop National Academies Press 3 Finkelhor D Ormrod R Turner H Hamby S L 2005 The victimization of children and youth A comprehensive national survey Child Maltreatment 10 1 5 25 4 Finkelhor D Ormrod R Turner H Hamby S L 2005 The victimization of children and youth A comprehensive national survey Child Maltreatment 10 1 5 25 5 Cooley Strickland M Quille T Griffin R Stuart E Bradshaw C Furr Holden D 2009 Community violence and youth Affect behavior substance use and academics Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 12 2 127156 National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine 2017 Community Violence as a Population Health Issue Proceedings of a Workshop National Academies Press Wright A W Austin M Booth C Kliewer W 2016 Systematic review Exposure to community violence and physical health outcomes in youth Journal of Pediatric Psychology 42 4 364 378 Olofsson N Lindqvist K Shaw B A Danielsson I 2012 Long term health consequences of violence exposure in adolescence A 26 year prospective study BMC Public Health 12 1 411 6 Osofsky J D 1999 The impact of violence on children The Future of Children 9 3 33 49 Perry B D Pollard R A Blakley T L Baker W L Vigilante D 1995 Childhood trauma the neurobiology of adaptation and use dependent development of the brain How states become traits Infant Mental Health Journal 16 4 271 291 7 Groves B Zuckerman B Marans S Cohen D 1993 Silent victims Children who witness violence Journal of the American Medical Association 269 262 264 8 Busby D R Lambert S F Ialongo N S 2013 Psychological symptoms linking exposure to community violence and academic functioning in African American adolescents Journal of Youth and Adolescence 42 2 250 262 p 256 9 Ginsburg G S Becker K D Kingery J N Nichols T 2008 Transporting CBT for childhood anxiety disorders into inner city school based mental health clinics Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 15 2 148 158 Storch E A Crisp H L 2004 Introduction Taking it to the schools transporting empirically supported treatments for childhood psychopathology to the school setting Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 7 4 191 193 10 West S Day A Somers C Baroni B 2014 Student perspectives on how trauma experiences manifest in the classroom Engaging court involved youth in the development of a trauma informed teaching curriculum Children Youth Services Review 3858 3865 11 Caringi J C Stanick C Trautman A Crosby L Devlin M Adams S 2015 Secondary traumatic stress in public school teachers Contributing and mitigating factors Advances in School Mental Health Promotion 8 4 244 256 Fisher M H 2011 Factors influencing stress burnout and retention of secondary teachers Current Issues in Education 14 1 1 37 Maring E F Koblinsky S A 2013 Teachers challenges strategies and support needs in schools affected by community violence a qualitative study Journal of School Health 83 6 379 388 12 Chan Tack A M Small M L 2017 Making friends in violent neighborhoods Strategies among elementary school children Sociological Science 4 224 248 Gaylord Harden N K Cunningham J A Zelencik B 2011 Effects of exposure to community violence on internalizing symptoms does desensitization to violence occur in African American youth Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 39 5 711 719 Maring E F Koblinsky S A 2013 Teachers challenges strategies and support needs in schools affected by community violence a qualitative study Journal of School Health 83 6 379 388 13 Collins K S 2001 Children s perceptions of safety and exposure to violence International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 10 1 2 31 49 14 Basch C E 2011 Aggression and violence and the achievement gap among urban minority youth Journal of School Health 81 10 619 625 McEvoy A Welker R 2000 Antisocial behavior academic failure and school climate A critical review Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 8 3 130 140 28

15 Sharkey P 2010 The acute effect of local homicides on children s cognitive performance Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 26 11733 11738 16 Walker L Smithgall C 2009 Underperforming Schools and the Education of Vulnerable Children and Youth Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago 17 Skiba R J Peterson R L 2000 School discipline at a crossroads From zero tolerance to early response Exceptional Children 66 3 335 346 18 Skiba R J Peterson R L 2000 School discipline at a crossroads From zero tolerance to early response Exceptional Children 66 3 335 346 Sugai G Horner R 2002 The evolution of discipline practices School wide positive behavior supports Child Family Behavior Therapy 24 1 2 23 50 Welch K Payne A A 2010 Racial threat and punitive school discipline Social Problems 57 1 25 48 19 Perry B L Morris E W 2014 Suspending progress Collateral consequences of exclusionary punishment in public schools American Sociological Review 79 6 1067 1087 20 Steinberg M P Lacoe J 2017 What do we know about school discipline reform Education Next 17 1 44 52 21 Steinberg M P Lacoe J 2017 What do we know about school discipline reform Education Next 17 1 44 52 22 Skiba R J Horner R H Chung C G Rausch M K May S L Tobin T 2011 Race is not neutral A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline School Psychology Review 40 1 85 Welch K Payne A A 2010 Racial threat and punitive school discipline Social Problems 57 1 25 48 23 Fabelo T Thompson M D Plotkin M Carmichael D Marchbanks M P Booth E A 2011 Breaking Schools Rules A Statewide Study of How School Discipline Relates to Students Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement New York Council of State Governments Justice Center Sussman A 2011 Learning in lockdown School police race and the limits of law UCLA Law Review 59 788 24 Steinberg M P Lacoe J 2017 What do we know about school discipline reform Education Next 17 1 44 52 25 Welch K Payne A A 2010 Racial threat and punitive school discipline Social Problems 57 1 25 48 26 Theriot M T 2009 School resource officers and the criminalization of student behavior Journal of Criminal Justice 37 3 280 287 27 Rabinowitz J 2006 Leaving homeroom in handcuffs Why an over reliance on law enforcement to ensure school safety is detrimental to children Cardozo Public Law Policy and Ethics Journal 4 153 194 28 Anda R F Felitti V J Bremner J D Walker J D Whitfield C H Perry B D Giles W H 2006 The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256 3 174 186 29 Perfect M Turley M Carlson J S Yohannan J Gilles M S 2016 School related outcomes of traumatic event exposure and traumatic stress symptoms in students A systematic review of research from 1990 to 2015 School Mental Health 8 1 7 43 30 Blodgett C Harrington R Lohan J Short R Turner N Winikoff J Adverse Childhood Experience and Developmental Risk in Elementary School Children Washington State University 31 Skiba R Sprague J 2008 Without Suspensions Educational leadership 66 1 38 43 32 Fenning P Theodos J Benner C Bohanon Edmonson H 2004 Integrating proactive discipline practices into codes of conduct Journal of School Violence 3 1 45 61 33 Jefferson County Public Schools 2012 Restorative Justice Practices in Schools 34 Langland S Lewis Palmer T Sugai G 1998 Teaching respect in the classroom An instructional approach Journal of Behavioral Education 8 2 245 262 Skiba R Sprague J 2008 Safety without suspensions Educational Leadership 66 1 38 43 Sugai G Horner R 2002 The evolution of discipline practices School wide positive behavior supports Child Family Behavior Therapy 24 1 2 23 50 35 Bracy N L 2011 Student perceptions of high security school environments Youth Society 43 1 365 395 386 36 Skiba R J Horner R H Chung C G Rausch M K May S L Tobin T 2011 Race is not neutral A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline School Psychology Review 40 1 85 86 37 United States Government Accountability Office 2018 Discipline disparities for black students boys and students with disabilities D D United States Government Accountability Office 38 Public Counsel Fix School Discipline Toolkit for Educators 29

39 Schonert Reichl K Zakrzewski V 2014 How to close the social emotional gap in teacher training Greater Good Magazine 40 Storch E A Crisp H L 2004 Introduction Taking it to the schools transporting empirically supported treatments for childhood psychopathology to the school setting Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 7 4 191 193 41 Society for Research in Child Development 2009 Report of Healthy development A summit on young children s mental health Society for Research in Child Development Washington DC 42 Zakrzewski V 2014 How to integrate social emotional learning into common core Greater Good Magazine 43 Bridgeland J Bruce M Hariharan A 2013 The Missing Piece A National Teacher Survey on How Social and Emotional Learning Can Empower Children and Transform Schools A Report for CASEL Civic Enterprises 44 Lehr C A Tan C S Ysseldyke J 2008 Alternative schools Remedial and Special Education 30 1 19 32 45 Dusenbury L A Newman J Z Weissberg R P Goren P Domitrovich C E Mart A K 2015 The case for preschool through high school state learning standards for SEL In J A Durlak C E Domitrovich R P Weissberg T P Gullotta Eds Handbook of Social and Emotional Learning Research and Practice pp 532 548 New York Guilford 46 Dusenbury L Dermody C Weissberg R 2018 2018 State Scorecard Scan More States are Supporting Social and Emotional Learning CASEL 47 Keierleber M November 2015 Why so few school cops are trained to work with kids The Atlantic 48 Anfara V Theriot M 2011 What research says school resource officers in middle grades school communities Middle School Journal 42 4 56 64 Advancement Project 2005 Education on Lockdown The Schoolhouse to Jailhouse Track Washington DC Advancement Project 49 Rabinowitz J 2006 Leaving homeroom in handcuffs Why an over reliance on law enforcement to ensure school safety is detrimental to children Cardozo Public Law Policy and Ethics Journal 4 153 194 50 Krezmien M Leone P Zablocki M Wells C 2010 Juvenile court referrals and the public schools Nature and extent of the practice in five states Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 3 273 293 Na C Gottfredson D C 2013 Police officers in schools Effects on school crime and the processing of offending behaviors Justice Quarterly 30 4 619 650 Rabinowitz J 2006 Leaving homeroom in handcuffs Why an over reliance on law enforcement to ensure school safety is detrimental to children Cardozo Public Law Policy and Ethics Journal 4 153 194 51 Joseph S 2017 Untrained SROs Are Criminalizing Our Schools The Wagner Review Online Colombi G Osher D 2015 Advancing School Discipline Reform National Association of State Boards of Education Price P 2009 When is a police officer an officer of the law the status of police officers in schools The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 1973 99 2 541 570 52 Sussman A 2011 Learning in lockdown School police race and the limits of law UCLA Law Review 59 788 849 53 Perry D M 2018 Lawmakers keep making schools more dangerous for vulnerable children Pacific Standard Magazine 54 Barnum M 2016 Data shows 3 of the 5 biggest school districts hire more security officers than counselors The 74 55 DeAngelis K J Brent B O Ianni D 2011 The hidden cost of school security Journal of Education Finance 36 3 312 337 56 Merkwae A 2015 Schooling the police Race disability and the conduct of school resource officers Michigan Journal of Race Law 21 1 147 57 Morton B M Berardi A A 2017 Trauma informed school programing Applications for mental health professionals and educator partnerships Journal of Child Adolescent Trauma 1 7 58 Falk M Troeh E 2017 When Schools Meet Trauma With Understanding Not Discipline National Public Radio 59 Kupchik Aaron 2014 The school to prison pipeline rhetoric and reality Choosing the Future for American Juvenile Justice 2 94 119 Sartain Lauren et al 2015 Suspending Chicago s Students Differences in Discipline Practices Across Schools University of Chicago Consortium on School Research 60 Thompson J 2016 Eliminating zero tolerance policies in schools Miami Dade County Public School s approach Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal 2 325 349 61 Bradshaw C P Koth C W Thornton L A Leaf P J 2009 Altering school climate through school wide positive behavioral interventions and supports Findings from a group randomized effectiveness trial Prevention Science 10 2 100 115 Luiselli J K Putnam R F Handler M W Feinberg A B 2005 Whole school positive behaviour support effects on student discipline problems and academic performance Educational Psychology 25 2 3 183 198 30

62 Mirsky L 2003 Safer Saner Schools Transforming School Culture with Restorative Practices International Institute for Restorative Practices 63 Steinberg M P Allensworth E Johnson D W 2011 Student and Teacher Safety in Chicago Public Schools The Roles of Community Context and School Social Organization Chicago Consortium on Chicago School Research at the University of Chicago 64 Banks S M 2000 Addressing violence in middle schools The Clearing House A Journal of Educational Strategies Issues and Ideas 73 4 209 210 65 Kandakai T L Price J H Telljohann S K and Wilson C A 1999 Mothers perceptions of factors influencing violence in schools Journal of School Health 69 189 195 66 Castro M Exp sito Casas E L pez Mart n E Lizasoain L Navarro Asencio E Luis Gaviria J 2015 Parental involvement on student academic achievement A meta analysis Educational Research Review 14 33 46 Mapp K L Johnson V R Sills Strickland C Meza C 2008 High school family centers transformative spaces linking schools and families in support of student learning Marriage Family Review 43 3 4 338 368 67 Bartolo P Cefai C 2017 Parents carers participation in mental health promotion in schools In Mental Health Promotion in Schools pp 197 205 68 Jaycox L H 2003 Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools Longmont CO Sopris West Educational Services Santiago C D Fuller A K Lennon J M Kataoka S H 2016 Parent perspectives from participating in a family component for CBITS Acceptability of a culturally informed school based program Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy 8 3 325 69 Raviv T Wadsworth M E 2010 The efficacy of a pilot prevention program for children and caregivers coping with economic strain Cognitive Therapy and Research 34 216 228 Wadsworth M E Rindlaub L Hurwich Reiss E Rienks S Bianco H Markman H J 2013 A longitudinal examination of the adaptation to poverty related stress model Predicting child and adolescent adjustment over time Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 42 713 725 70 Bartolo P Cefai C 2017 Parents carers participation in mental health promotion in schools In Mental Health Promotion in Schools pp 197 205 Garbacz S A McIntosh K Eagle J W Dowd Eagle S E Hirano K A Ruppert T 2016 Family engagement within schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports Preventing School Failure Alternative Education for Children and Youth 60 1 60 69 71 Baquedano L pez P Alexander R A Hernandez S J 2013 Equity issues in parental and community involvement in schools What teacher educators need to know Review of Research in Education 37 1 149 182 Warren M R Hong S Rubin C L Uy P S 2009 Beyond the bake sale A community based relational approach to parent engagement in schools Teachers College Record 111 9 2209 2254 72 Bartolo P Cefai C 2017 Parents carers participation in mental health promotion in schools In Mental Health Promotion in Schools pp 197 205 73 Medina J 2010 Pass the squishy The New York Times 74 Baweja S Santiago C D Vona P Pears G Langley A Kataoka S 2016 Improving implementation of a schoolbased program for traumatized students Identifying factors that promote teacher support and collaboration School Mental Health 8 1 120 131 Pickens I Tschopp N 2017 Technical Assistance Bulletin Trauma Informed Classrooms The National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges 75 Brouwers A Tomic W 2000 A longitudinal study of teacher burnout and perceived self efficacy in classroom management Teaching and Teacher education 16 2 239 253 76 Morton B M Berardi A A 2017 Trauma informed school programing applications for mental health professionals and educator partnerships Journal of Child Adolescent Trauma 1 7 31

Translation and Dissemination of Trauma Responsive Educational Practices TREPEducator org info TREPEducator org