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The Liberal Arts StoryThe Medieval UniversityTrivium & QuadriviumSteve Jones PhD

© Steve Jones 2023All rights reservedThe Liberal Arts Story:The Medieval University,Trivium & Quadrivium“Is is seldom possible to say of the medievals that they *always* did one thing and *never*another; they were marvelously inconsistent. ” Thomas CahillVisit: www.philomax.com1st EditionFebruary 2023

The Liberal Arts StoryContentsIntroduction 3Medieval Universities 4University of Bologna 4University of Paris 4University of Oxford 5University of Cambridge 5University of Salamanca 5University of Padua 5The Program of Study 6The Original Bachelor of (Liberal) Arts Degree 7The Trivium 7Grammar 7Rhetoric 7Logic 8The Quadrivium 8Arithmetic 8Geometry 8Astronomy 8Music 9Medieval Exams 10Oral Exams 10The Disputation 11Memorization 11Rigorous Preparation 11Grading 11The Master's Degree 121

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Doctorate 14St Thomas Aquinas 15Dante Alighieri 15William of Ockham 15Nicole Oresme 16Geoffrey Chaucer 16Recruiting Students 17Academic Controversies & Hot Topics 19The Realists vs. Nominalists Controversy 19Peter Abelard (1079-1142) 20John Duns Scotus (1265-1308) 20William of Ockham (c. 1287-1347) 20Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) 20The Paris Condemnations of 1277 21Thomas Aquinas 21Siger of Brabant 21Boethius of Dacia 22John Peckham 22The Scholastic Method Controversy 23University Scandals 24St Scholastica Day Riot 24The Trial of Joan of Arc 25The Papal Schism 25Conclusion 262

The Liberal Arts StoryIntroductionThis little book is for those who have an interest in and passion for theliberal arts (sometimes referred to as a classical education). Understanding thelong tradition of the liberal arts, and where they came from, is essential forpreserving the tradition and understanding the nature of education itself.Preserving the liberal arts is especially important today. Modern educationmodels are failing; many institutions have been “hijacked” by the socialist “longmarch” through our institutions; the very purpose and function of education itselfhas been lost, and utility has replaced virtue as the founding educational principle.Aware of this crisis, many families and educators are turning to moretraditional methods of education, homeschooling, and alternative colleges. Thisbook is also for them.The liberal arts were developed in the medieval university system. Thesearts were, however, more than mere “subjects”. The arts were a way of life, aformation of the person, rather than simply being an indoctrination into facts.This book explores, in a straightforward way, the nature of the medievaluniversity, what was taught and studied, and why. The liberal arts were the coreprogram of the great European universities for many centuries.3

The Liberal Arts StoryMedieval UniversitiesThe medieval university system was a complex and hierarchical system ofeducation that emerged in Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries. At the time,the Church played a central role in education, and many of the early universitieswere founded and supported by religious orders such as the Franciscans andDominicans.The earliest (and most prestigious) universities were founded between the11th and 13th centuries. The six top, or “Ivy League” universities in the MiddleAges were:University of BolognaFounded in 1088, the University of Bologna is considered the oldestuniversity in Europe. It was known for its teaching of canon law and civil law, andit attracted students from all over Europe.University of ParisEstablished in the 12th century, the University of Paris became a center oftheological and philosophical study, attracting scholars such as Peter Abelard,Thomas Aquinas, and John Duns Scotus.4

The Liberal Arts StoryUniversity of OxfordFounded in the late 12th century, the University of Oxford became famousfor its teaching of theology and philosophy, as well as the arts and sciences.University of CambridgeEstablished in the 13th century, the University of Cambridge became acenter of learning in subjects such as theology, law, and medicine.University of SalamancaFounded in the 13th century, the University of Salamanca became arenowned center of learning in Spain and was known for its teaching of theology,law, and the arts.University of PaduaEstablished in the 13th century, the University of Padua was known for itsteaching of medicine, law, and theology.These universities were unique in that they were not owned or controlled byany particular individual or group, but rather were independent institutions thatwere governed by a combination of faculty, students, and administrators.5

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Program of StudyThe medieval university system was structured around a hierarchy ofdegrees, with the lowest degree being the Bachelor's degree, followed by theMaster's degree, and finally the Doctorate.Students would typically begin their studies at a very young age, oftenaround the age of 13 or 14, and would spend several years studying the Trivium(grammar, logic, and rhetoric) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music,and astronomy). The Trivium and Quadrivium comprised what we now call, the“Liberal Arts”, and which culminated in the Bachelor of Arts Degree.We still have, of course, the Bachelor of Arts degree today, although it is notquite what it was originally, either in content or intent. And now of course, modernstudents can also forgo the Arts degree and go for a Bachelor of Science, orBachelor of Education degree instead. This modern notion of varying kinds ofbachelor degrees would have made no sense at all in medieval times. Arguably, itmakes no sense today either, and perhaps is indicative of the fundamentalbreakdown of the modern education system.6

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Original Bachelor of (Liberal) Arts DegreeTo earn a Bachelor's degree in the medieval university system, studentsneeded to complete a program of study in the liberal arts, or the Trivium andQuadrivium.The TriviumThe Trivium consisted of three subjects: grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Thesesubjects were collectively known as the "liberal arts," which were consideredessential for a student's education.GrammarThis subject involved the study of language, including the structure of wordsand sentences. Students would learn how to read and write in Latin, which was thelanguage of education and scholarship during the medieval period.RhetoricThis subject involved the study of effective communication. Students wouldlearn how to speak and write persuasively, using language to influence others andconvey their ideas.7

The Liberal Arts StoryLogicThis subject involved the study of reasoning and argumentation. Studentswould learn how to analyze and evaluate arguments, and how to construct theirown logical arguments.The QuadriviumThe Quadrivium built upon the foundation of the Trivium(grammar, logic,and rhetoric). Students who had completed the Trivium would then move on tostudy the Quadrivium which comprised the study of arithmetic, geometry,astronomy, and music.ArithmeticThis covered the study of numbers, including operations such as addition,subtraction, multiplication, and division. It also included more advanced topicssuch as algebra and number theory.GeometryThis covered the study of shapes, sizes, and positions of objects in space. Itincluded topics such as Euclidean geometry, trigonometry, and the study of anglesand proportions.AstronomyThis covered the study of the heavens, including the motions and positionsof the stars, planets, and other celestial objects. It included topics such as8

The Liberal Arts Storyastronomy, astrology, and the use of astronomical instruments such as theastrolabe.MusicThis covered the study of musical theory and notation. It included topicssuch as the structure of music, harmony, rhythm, and composition.Together, the liberal arts provided students with a strong foundation in themathematical and scientific concepts that were believed to underpin the naturalworld. They were also seen as valuable tools for developing critical thinking skillsand problem-solving abilities. In other words, they were considered an essentialcomponent of the formation of the whole person. Rather than viewing education assimply being a mechanism of utility to train a person for a “job”, education wasprimarily focussed on the moral, intellectual, and spiritual formation of the humanperson made in the image and likeness of God.The length of time it took to complete the Trivium and Quadrivium varied,but typically it would take four years of study to earn a Bachelor's degree. Duringthis time, students would attend lectures, participate in discussions, and completeassignments related to each subject.9

The Liberal Arts StoryMedieval ExamsEarning a Bachelor's degree in the medieval university system was anachievement in its own right, and it was a requirement for further study or formany professions. It was also a sign of social status, as it indicated that the studentcame from a family with the means and resources to support their education.To earn a Bachelor's degree, students needed to demonstrate a solidunderstanding of these subjects and be able to apply what they had learned inpractical ways. They would be required to pass a series of examinations in eachsubject area, and in some cases, they might also need to defend a thesis ordissertation.Medieval university exams were quite different from the modern exams thatwe are familiar with today. The format of the exams varied somewhat dependingon the subject, the university, and the time period, but there were some generalcharacteristics that were typical of most medieval examinations:Oral ExamsIn most cases, medieval university exams were oral exams. This means thatstudents were required to answer questions posed by the examiners in a publicsetting. The exams were often conducted in Latin, which was the language ofscholarship at the time (many institutions today still perform oral exams in place ofwritten exams).10

The Liberal Arts StoryThe DisputationA common feature of medieval exams was the disputation, in which studentswere required to defend a thesis or answer questions on a particular topic in apublic debate. This was an important way for students to demonstrate theirknowledge and engage in intellectual exchange with their peers and teachers.MemorizationBecause there were no textbooks or notes available to students, they had torely on memorization to learn and retain information. Therefore, many medievalexams tested students' ability to memorize and recall information.Rigorous PreparationIn order to prepare for exams, students were required to attend lectures, readbooks, and engage in study groups or other forms of collaborative learning. Examswere typically given at the end of each academic term, so students had to workhard to keep up with their coursework and be ready for the exam.GradingMedieval exams were graded on a pass/fail basis, and the passing grade wasoften quite high. In some cases, only a small percentage of students would pass anexam, which made achieving a passing grade a significant accomplishment.11

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Master's DegreeTo earn a Master's degree in the medieval university system, students neededto complete advanced studies in one of the four faculties: theology, law, medicine,or arts. The length of time it took to earn a Master's degree varied, but it generallytook between two and six years of additional study beyond the Bachelor's degree.In the faculty of theology, students studied the Bible, Church history, andChristian doctrine, and they were prepared for positions in the Church.In the faculty of law, students studied Roman law, canon law, and civil law,and they were trained for positions in government, the Church, or as legal advisors.In the faculty of medicine, students studied anatomy, physiology, andmedical treatments, and they were trained as physicians or surgeons.In the faculty of arts, students could specialize in subjects such asphilosophy, literature, or mathematics, and they were prepared for a wide range ofcareers.The Master's degree was considered a higher degree than the Bachelor'sdegree, and it was often required for certain professions or for further study, suchas a Doctorate. To earn a Master's degree, students needed to complete a set ofrequired courses in their chosen faculty, as well as electives, and they would needto pass a set of exams.In addition to coursework, students would also need to complete a writtenthesis or dissertation, which was a significant research project that demonstratedtheir knowledge and mastery of their chosen subject. This thesis would be12

The Liberal Arts Storydefended in front of a faculty panel, and if the student passed, they would beawarded their Master's degree.Earning a Master's degree in the medieval university system was asignificant achievement, and it was often seen as a path to social mobility andcareer advancement. However, it was also a rigorous and demanding process, andonly a small percentage of students were able to attain this level of education. Justas today, many students were not cut out for the rigors of academic life (perhapsthey were pushed into it by their parents).13

The Liberal Arts StoryThe DoctorateTo earn a Doctorate degree in the medieval university system, studentsneeded to complete advanced (Master’s) studies in one of the four faculties oftheology, law, medicine, or arts. As with the other programs of study, the length oftime it took to earn a Doctorate degree also varied, but it generally took severaladditional years of study beyond the Master's degree.The process of earning a Doctorate degree was rigorous and demanding, andit typically involved several years of independent research and the production of asubstantial written work, known as a doctoral dissertation or thesis. Thedissertation was usually an original contribution to the student's field of study, andit was intended to demonstrate the student's mastery of their subject and theirability to conduct independent research.After completing the dissertation, the student would be required to defend itin front of a panel of faculty members, who would ask questions and critique thework. If the student passed the defense, they would be awarded the Doctoratedegree.Earning a Doctorate degree in the medieval university system was asignificant achievement, and it was often seen as the highest level of education thatone could attain. It was required for certain professions, such as teaching orholding a high-ranking position in the Church or government, and it wasconsidered a path to social status and prestige.14

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Doctorate degree was a rare and prestigious degree in the Middle Ages,and many of the people who earned it went on to become influential thinkers andleaders in their fields.Among the famous people who earned Doctorate degrees in the MiddleAges:St Thomas AquinasAquinas, a Catholic theologian and philosopher, earned a Doctorate inTheology from the University of Paris in 1256. He is considered one of the mostimportant theologians in the history of the Catholic Church.Dante AlighieriDante, an Italian poet, earned a Doctorate in Theology from the Universityof Paris in 1315. Although he is best known for his literary works, he was also arespected scholar of theology and philosophy.William of OckhamOckham, an English Franciscan friar and philosopher, earned a Doctorate inTheology from the University of Oxford in the 1320s. He is known for hiscontributions to logic and metaphysics.15

The Liberal Arts StoryNicole OresmeOresme, a French bishop and mathematician, earned a Doctorate inTheology from the University of Paris in the 1350s. He is known for his work onmathematics, physics, and economics.Geoffrey ChaucerChaucer, an English poet, earned a Doctorate in Theology from theUniversity of Oxford in the 1370s. Although he is best known for his literaryworks, he was also a respected scholar of theology.16

The Liberal Arts StoryRecruiting StudentsTeachers competed for students in a number of ways.One of the most important ways was through reputation: teachers who wererenowned for their expertise and scholarship often attracted more students thanthose who were less well-known. To build a reputation, a teacher might writeinfluential texts or deliver well-regarded lectures that were widely circulated anddiscussed.Another way that teachers competed for students was through the use ofstipends and other financial incentives. Wealthy patrons, including kings, nobles,and wealthy merchants, often provided financial support to universities andindividual teachers, which in turn allowed those teachers to offer stipends tostudents who were struggling to make ends meet. These stipends could be apowerful incentive for students to enroll in a particular teacher's classes, since theycould help alleviate financial pressure and make it easier for students to focus ontheir studies.Teachers in the medieval university system also competed for studentsthrough the use of rhetoric and persuasion. Teachers might deliver passionate andinspiring lectures that were designed to capture the imagination of potentialstudents, or they might use personal connections or relationships to recruit newstudents. In some cases, teachers might even engage in public debates or disputeswith other teachers, in an effort to attract attention and draw in new students.17

The Liberal Arts StoryThe faculties could be highly competitive and often engaged in cut-throat tactics toattract students and establish their reputation.One such incident that exemplifies this competitiveness occurred at theUniversity of Paris in the 13th century. The University of Paris was one of the mostprestigious institutions of higher learning in Europe during this time, attractingstudents and scholars from all over the continent.On this occasion, a professor of theology barged into a lecture being givenby a professor of law and started to loudly expound on his own subject matter. Thetheology professor was hoping to poach some of the law professor's students andconvince them to switch faculties and enroll in his own courses.The law professor was understandably outraged by this intrusion, and he andhis students began to shout down the theology professor. The altercation quicklyescalated, with the two sides exchanging insults and even getting into physicalaltercations.The university authorities eventually intervened to restore order, but theincident left a lasting impression on the student body. It became a cautionary taleabout the intense rivalry between the faculties and the lengths to which someprofessors would go to attract students.While this incident may seem comical or even petty to us today, it highlightsthe highly competitive and cutthroat nature of medieval universities. It alsounderscores the importance of reputation and prestige in academia, a theme thatremains relevant to this day.18

The Liberal Arts StoryAcademic Controversies & Hot TopicsMedieval university life was by no means placid! Numerous hot-buttonissues sparked heated debates and controversies. Some of these issues evenerupted into shocking scandals, mayhem, and murder.The Realists vs. Nominalists ControversyThe Realists vs. Nominalists Controversy was a philosophical dispute thatcentered around the nature of “universals”. A universal is a concept or idea thatapplies to multiple individual objects or entities, while a particular is a specificobject or entity that exists in the world. For example, the concept of "redness" is auniversal, because it can apply to many different particular things that are red, suchas apples, roses, and stop signs.Realists believed that universals (like "justice" or "humanity") were realentities that existed independently of the objects they described, while Nominalistsbelieved that universals were merely names or concepts that humans used to grouptogether similar objects.Some of the key medieval figures who were involved in this controversy(which is still ongoing today):19

The Liberal Arts StoryPeter Abelard (1079-1142)Abelard was a French philosopher and theologian who is often seen as oneof the key proponents of Nominalism. He is perhaps best known for his famouslove affair with Heloise, which has been immortalized in literature and popularculture.John Duns Scotus (1265-1308)Scotus was a Scottish philosopher and theologian who is often seen as one ofthe key proponents of Realism. He is known for his complex and nuancedarguments, and is often seen as a precursor to the later Scholastic philosophers.William of Ockham (c. 1287-1347)Ockham was an English Franciscan friar who is often seen as one of the keyproponents of Nominalism. He is perhaps best known for his famous "razor,"which states that "entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily." In other words,he believed that the simplest explanation is usually the best.Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)Aquinas was an Italian Dominican friar who is often seen as one of the keyproponents of Realism. He is known for his massive work, the Summa Theologica,which attempted to synthesize the teachings of the Church with the philosophy ofAristotle.20

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Paris Condemnations of 1277The Condemnation of 1277: In 1277, the bishop of Paris, Stephen Tempier,issued a list of 219 philosophical and theological propositions that were consideredheretical or at least suspect. Many of these propositions had been put forward bythe philosopher Aristotle, who was being studied and debated in universitiesthroughout Europe at the time. The condemnation sparked a huge debate about therelationship between faith and reason, and raised questions about the limits ofacademic freedom.Many medieval philosophers and academics were affected by theCondemnations throughout the middle ages (the Condemnations were neverofficially revoked, but simply petered out over time). Among some of the notablephilosophers caught up in the controversy were:Thomas AquinasAquinas, despite his reputation, was one of the scholars whose work wascondemned by Tempier in 1277. However, Aquinas was already dead by the timeof the condemnation, so he was not able to defend himself against the charges.Siger of BrabantSiger of Brabant was a philosopher and theologian who was also condemnedby Tempier in 1277. Siger was a leading proponent of Averroism, a philosophicalmovement that drew on the works of the Islamic philosopher Averroes (Ibn Rushd)and sought to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology.21

The Liberal Arts StoryAfter the condemnation, Siger was forced to flee Paris, and he spent severalyears in exile in Italy. He continued to write and teach during this time, but he wasoften in conflict with Church authorities, who viewed his ideas as dangerous andheretical. In 1300, Siger was arrested in Orvieto, Italy, on charges of heresy, but hewas eventually released and allowed to return to Paris.Siger's later life is somewhat obscure, but he appears to have continued toteach and write in Paris until his death, sometime around 1281-1284.Boethius of DaciaBoethius (not to be confused with Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius ofthe 6th century) was a Danish philosopher and theologian who was alsocondemned by Tempier in 1277. He was a member of the so-called "RadicalAristotelian" school, which emphasized the autonomy of reason in theinterpretation of philosophical and theological concepts.After the condemnation, Boethius was forced to leave Paris and was exiledto Denmark, where he continued to teach and write. He was eventually appointedas Bishop of Roskilde, one of the most important dioceses in Denmark. As bishop,Boethius was an influential figure in the Danish church, and he played a key role inpromoting the study of theology and philosophy in Denmark.John PeckhamPeckham was the Archbishop of Canterbury and a prominent scholar in hisown right. He was not directly involved in the Condemnation of 1277, but he didplay a role in the controversy by defending the condemned philosophers andtheologians.22

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Scholastic Method ControversyThis was a broad controversy that centered around the methods and practicesof medieval universities. Scholasticism was a system of learning that relied heavilyon logic and reason, and involved close readings of classical texts. Critics of thescholastic method argued that it was too narrow and rigid, and that it stifledcreativity and independent thought (which was often coded language for heterodoxviews!).People often have the misconception that medieval thinkers, “controlled” bythe Church, all taught, wrote, and communicated in lockstep with the demands ofthe Church hierarchy. Nothing could be further from the truth!Medieval universities were very colorful places. They were the scene ofrigorous debate and even scandalous liberal thinking. Medieval history is full ofcharacters who challenged the status quo, and–with a few notable exceptions–whowere able to do so without molestation.23

The Liberal Arts StoryUniversity ScandalsWhile the universities of the Middle Ages were centers of learning andscholarship, they were also prone to conflicts, scandals and even murder!St Scholastica Day RiotPerhaps the most shocking of these scandals–one that sent shockwavesthroughout medieval Europe–was the St Scholastica Day riot on February 10th,1355.The riot was sparked when a dispute between two Oxford students and alocal tavern owner escalated into a riot that lasted for two days and resulted in thedeaths of around 60 townspeople.However, the underlying causes of the riot were much deeper and morecomplex. The University of Oxford was a powerful and influential institution inmedieval Europe, and its students enjoyed many privileges and exemptions fromlocal laws and customs. This often led to tensions between the students and thetownspeople, who resented their privileged status. One can imagine suchself-important students (also probably drunk at the time) throwing their weightaround the tavern and threatening the owner.24

The Liberal Arts StoryThe Trial of Joan of ArcIn 1431, the University of Paris was involved in the trial of Joan of Arc, aFrench peasant who had led the French army to several important victories duringthe Hundred Years' War. The trial was marked by accusations of heresy andpolitical intrigue, and it ultimately resulted in Joan being burned at the stake.The Papal SchismIn the late 14th century, the Catholic Church was embroiled in a disputeknown as the Papal Schism, which involved competing claims to the papacy bydifferent factions within the Church. The dispute had far-reaching effects on theuniversities of the time, as different universities aligned themselves with differentpapal claimants and supported their political and theological positions.25

The Liberal Arts StoryConclusionMedieval society was highly complex and colorful. The university systemplayed a central role in that society. It trained clergymen, lawyers, doctors,teachers, and government officials.Despite the wide variety of career pathways that graduates took, everyonestarted their academic careers with the same program of study: the liberal arts ofTrivium and Quadrivium. Rather than direct students immediately uponmatriculation into a specialized program of study, the medieval universityunderstood that a healthy society can only function if the people running it areformed in virtue, and not simply formed in facts.Whatever you may think of the Middle Ages (and the word, “medieval”, hasmost certainly become a pejorative term these days–for reasons we will beexploring in future publications) it is the foundation of Western Civilization. Themedieval universities gave us science, law, politics, and of course, the MagnaCarta.If we can rise above the (historically recent) defamation of the Middle Ages,we will be able to find real gems and clues to how we might restore our brokeneducation system today.26