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!Michael StrachanWorld War 1 The Marne and The Race to the Sea

Copyright © heritagewalks.london 2019 75 West Street, Harrow on the Hill, London HA1 3EL info@walkingthepast.co.uk First published in the UK in 2012 Text and images copyright © Michael Strachan Michael Strachan has asserted his rights to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. (The cover illustration shows a French artillery unit firing a’ 75’)

Michael StrachanWorld War 1 The Marne and The Race to the Sea

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CONTENTS World War 1 - an overview (3) The First Battle of the Marne 1 The French Army 4 Order(s) of Battle 6 The First Battle of the Aisne 8 The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) 11 The Race to the Sea 14 The First Battle of Ypres 17 The First Indian VC 19 The Christmas Truce 1914 21 Next in the series Back button ( )2

THE GREAT WAR - an overview ‘The war to end all wars’ - began in July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. There were two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary).! These alliances expanded as Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies, and the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.! For decades an intense rivalry exis-ted between the trading empires of Europe, making a conflict likely. A major flashpoint was the area known as the Balkans where Turkey (Ottoman Empire) had ruled for hundreds of years. Serbia was one of the most aggressive of the smal-ler countries that had won inde-pendence from Turkey and now looked to expand its influence. However, the immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Aus-tria, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, on 28 June 1914 by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary subsequently delivered its own ultimatum to the Kingdom of Ser-bia. Within weeks, all the major powers had lined up according to the terms of their alliances and, when their colonies joined in, the conflict spread around the world. The violent and unprovoked German attack through neutral Belgium in 1914 and the massacres of innocent ( )3

civilians by units of the German Army in that campaign were a foretaste of what was to come in the Second World War. More than 70! million military per-so nne l, in clu din g 6 0 mil lio n Europeans, were mobilised and more than 9! million combatants were killed, largely because of tech-nological advancements like the machine gun and howitzer and the use of barbed wire. These devel-opments increased the killing power of armies when either side resorted to massed infantry attacks over open ground. It was not until the development of tanks and preci-sion artillery barrages that the trench deadlock was finally broken by the British Army under Sir Douglas Haig.! After the war there were dramatic political changes and revolu-tions that led to the removal of old monarchies and the estab-lishment of new totalitarian governments across Europe. In the Soviet Union the Bolsheviks took power and the effects of com-munist rule persist to this day. In Germany the widespread refusal to accept the Versailles Treaty contributed to the rise of Adolph Hitler and the Nazi Party. World War 2 was an inevitable con-sequence. To listen to this introduction and overview just click this link ( )4

Map of Europe in 1914The Allied Powers are shown - The Central Powers are shown - Neutral Powers are shown -(5)

The First Battle of the Marne This momentous battle marked the end of the sweeping German advance into France and saw the beginning of the appalling trench warfare that was to characterise the rest of World War One. Germany's grand Schlieffen Plan to conquer France, before the Russians could fully mobilise their vast armies, entailed a wheeling move-ment of the northern wing of its armies through central Belgium to enter France near Lille. Turning west near the English Channel the Ger-mans would move south to cut off the expected French retreat, confid-ent that they would encircle the French Army and capture Paris thus ending the war. 1Gen Alexan-der von Klück Map 1

However, the German 1st Army, under General Alexander von Kluck, swung North of Paris, rather than South-West as originally intended, passing into the valley of the River Marne across the Paris defences. Meanwhile many of the German forces were ex-hausted by the constant fighting during their 240km advance and their supply lines were stretched. Now the opportunity of a flank attack and a possible counter-envelopment was quickly recognised by Joseph Joffre, who ordered a halt to the French retreat on September 3rd Three days later his reinforced left flank began a general offensive against an enemy who had seriously underestimated the resili-ence of the French and British armies. General Joseph Gallieni, the Military Gov-ernor of Paris, decided to redeploy Gener-al Michel Maunoury and the French 6th Army so they could attack General von Kluck’s exposed flank by ferrying troops to the front in a fleet of Parisian taxi cabs. When attacked on the morning of 6th September General von Kluck wheeled his entire force to meet the attack, opening a 50km gap between his own forces and the German 2nd Army led by General Karl von Bulow. This was a classic opportunity to exploit Von Bulow’s mistake. The British forces and the French 5th Army now advanced into this gap. (See map1 on previous page). 2General JoffreGeneral Gallieni

By 11 September the Germans were in full retreat and made their defensive stand along the high ground north of the Lower Aisne River where they were able to defeat the Allied attacks. On September 14, it was clear that neither side would be able to dislodge the other and both began entrenching. At first these were simple, shallow pits, but quickly they became deeper, more elaborate trenches. With the war stalled along the Aisne in Champagne, each side raced north west seeking to turn the other's flank. Neither was successful and by the end of Octo-ber a solid line of trenches ran from the coast to the Swiss frontier. The resulting geographic and tactic-al deadlock would take another three years and countless lives squandered on every side to be broken down. In saving Paris from capture the First Battle of the Marne was a great strategic victory, as it enabled the French to continue the war. However, the Germans occupied a large part of the industrial North-East of France - a serious blow to its economy. Allied casualties in the fighting numbered around 263,000, while the Germans in-curred similar losses. In the wake of the battle, Helmuth von Moltke, (who had weakened the original Schlieffen Plan), reportedly informed Kaiser Wilhelm II, "Your Majesty, we have lost the war." For his failure, he was replaced as Chief of the General Staff on September 14 by Erich von Falkenhayn. 3General von BulowGeneral von Moltke

The French Army One of the ironies of the original Schlieffen Plan is how accurately it predicted French strategy in 1914. The Germans expected the French to launch a furious attack along the border with Alsace-Lorraine - the provinces that had been taken from the French in the war of 1870. The French war plan, known as Plan XVII, had been presented to the French War Board in 1913 by General Joffre, who expected the main German attack in Alsace-Lorraine. He did not foresee the heavy German right-wing strike through Belgium at the start of hostilities. Underestimating the strength of German reserves, Jof-fre deployed three of his armies along the Franco-German bor-der, leaving only one army (Fifth) facing a possible German attack through Belgium with the expected support of the British Expedi-tionary Force. The last army (Fourth) was held in reserve. 4One of the famous Reynault taxis

Joffre assumed his command in 1911, and proved to be a strong be-liever in the offensive. The 1913 regulations on the operations of large units emphasised the over-whelming importance of an all-out offensive to every commander in the French army and asserted, "The French army, returning to its tradi-tions, accepts no law in the conduct of operations other than the offens-ive." This clearly did not take into account the developments of ma-chine guns and barbed wire! Joffre's faith in the offensive is shown, not only in the numerous attacks he launched from 1914 to 1916, but also in his half-hearted support for the development of heavy artillery before the war. This gave the French Army superb mo-bile artillery pieces, such as the famous 75-mm cannon, but left it ineffective against the German trench systems. Despite the overall failure of his strategy, he did not lose his faith in the offensive until the collapse of the Champagne operation in October 1915, by which time France had suffered more than 50% of the losses it would incur during the whole war and was vulner-able to von Falkenhayn's 1916 deliberate attempt to bleed it white at Verdun. Joffre's strategy and his faith in the offensive thus brought the French to the brink of disaster, forcing the British Army into disastrous offensives to relieve pressure on their ally. 5French Infantrymen 1914 kit

Order(s) of Battle 1 British Expeditionary Force (Gen. French) 1st Cavalry Division (Gen. Allenby) I Corps (Gen. Haig) II Corps (Gen. Smith-Dorrien) III Corps (W Pulteney) 2 French Fifth Army (Gen.Espèrey) I Corps III Corps X Corps XVIII Corps IV Reserve Division Group Conneau Cavalry Corps 3 French Sixth Army (Gen.Maunoury) IV Corps VII Corps V Reserve Division Group VI Reserve Division Group Bridoux Cavalry Corps 4 French Ninth Army (Gen. Foch) IX Corps XI Corps XXI Corps 6French Infantrymen

5 German First Army (Gen. Kluck) II Corps III Corps IV Corps IX Corps IV Reserve Corps II Cavalry Corps 6 German Second Army (Gen. Bülow) Guards Corps VII Corps X Corps X Reserve Corps I Cavalry Corps 7 German Third Army (Gen. Hausen) XII Corps XII Reserve Corps 7German Infantrymen

First Battle of the Aisne Following the battle of the Marne in early September, 1914, the German Army rapidly retreated to a formidable defensive posi-tion along the north bank of the River Aisne, a tributary of the Oise. The Chemin des Dames ridge provided a long natural de-fensive position above low-lying ground extending a mile on each side of the river, rising abruptly to a line of steep cliffs three to four hundred feet high, then gently levelling to a plateau. The Germans dug in on the higher northern side 3! km beyond the crest, behind a dense thicket that covered the front and slope. The French Army (5th and 6th) and the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) launched a direct, frontal assault at the Aisne on 13th September. The unfenced countryside of low crops offered no natural concealment to the Allies and the German forces above on the northern plateau commanded a wide field of fire. 8French Army attacking at the Aisne

In a dense fog on the night of September 13, most of the BEF managed to cross the Aisne on pontoons or partially demolished bridges at Bourg-et-Comin on the right and at Venizel on the left. The French Fifth Army crossed the Aisne at Berry-au-Bac and cap-tured the eastern tip of a steep ridge - the Chemin des Dames. However, the French Fourth, Fifth and Ninth armies made little progress. When the mist evaporated under a bright morning sun, the BEF were mercilessly cross-raked by fire. Those caught in the valley fared no better and a German counter-attack, drove the Allies back to the river. The BEF clung tenaciously to the precari-ous positions it had won on the northern banks of the river, living and fighting under unexpectedly harsh and dangerous conditions. Almost entirely unequipped for trench warfare, the British Army was forced to forage in nearby farms and villages for pickaxes, spades and other implements and used these to improvise shal-low pits in the soil. These were intended to cover against enemy observation and shell fire but were soon deepened to about sev-en feet with camouflage and holes cut into trench walls then braced with timber. This trench warfare was also new to the German armies, who had been prepared for a highly mobile war of only a few weeks. However, with typical ingenuity the Germans managed to adapt their weapons systems to the new situation. 9British Web-ley-Fosbery 1837Short Magazine Lee-Enfield Mk 1

Siege mortars were used to drop heavy shells right into the British trench positions. German infantry began to use rifle grenades and hand grenades with devastating effects on Allied troops. Both in artillery and machine guns, the enemy was infinitely superior in numbers. The German army quickly learned the value of deep and protected trench systems and soon began to replace tem-porary trenches like the one shown above. After their successful reconnaissance use during the battle of Mons and the retreat, the British had equipped a few of their aero planes with wireless and they were used to report troop movements in this battle. On September 24, Lieutenants B.T. James and D.S. Lewis detec-ted three well-concealed enemy gun batteries that were inflicting considerable damage on British positions. They radioed back the location of the batteries, then circled around waiting to spot their own gunners' exploding shells. Fighting continued until 28th September when it became clear to the Allies that further frontal infantry attacks on well-defen-ded positions, would only cause unnecessarily heavy cas-ualties. 10French lebel 1886 rifleGerman Luger Parabellum pistol

The Royal Flying Corps The RFC was formed in April 1912, as the British High Command began to recognise the potential for aircraft in observation, under the command of Brigadier-General Sir David Henderson. Origin-ally there was a Military Wing, commanded by Major Frederick Sykes, and a Naval Wing under Commander Charles Samson. By 1914, the Naval Wing was put under the direct control of the Roy-al Navy and the Royal Naval Air Service was formed. Flying was still in its infancy - the first powered flight by the Wright Brothers had only been in 1903 – and the first aeroplanes used by the RFC were crude, and the RFC also used balloons. Aeroplanes such as the B.E. 2c (shown above) were airworthy but not really capable of engaging in classic aerial combat. At the start of World War I the RFC consisted of five squadrons – one observation balloon squadron (RFC No 1 Squadron) and four aeroplane squadrons giving a total strength of 63 aircraft suppor-ted by 900 men. The initial work of the RFC was directing artillery fire, photographic reconnaissance and, in the early stages of the war, engagement with the enemy was more by accident than design. 11B.E. 2c 1914

This changed when Hugh Trenchard was put in charge of the RFC. He required the pilots to be far more aggressive in their approach, but it was costly in terms of men and aeroplanes lost. The RFC quickly proved its worth on the 22nd August 1914, when Cap-tain L.E.O. Charlton and his observ-er Lieutenant V.H.M. Wadham made the crucial observation of the at-tempt of the German General von Kluck's army to out-flank the British Expeditionary Force. This allowed the British BEF Commander-in-Chief, Field Marshal Sir John French, to realign his front and save his army at the battle of Mons. The reports of French aerial surveillance aircraft on the 3rd September 1914, that the German 1st, 2nd and 5th Armies were moving towards Paris, were even more important and allowed General Joseph Gallieni, commander of the defence of Paris, and an early supporter of aerial reconnaissance, to act promptly to save Paris. Inevitably the RFC pilots battled with German but they faced an enemy with superior aircraft, in terms of speed and operating ceil-ing, and a better flying training system. By the autumn of 1915 the Germans had achieved air superiority with the Fokker Eindecker shown below. Designed by the Dutchman, Anthony Fokker, it was similar to a French Morane monoplane and was a true fighter plane with a machine gun that could be fired directly ahead through the propellor arc. 12Hugh Trenchard

The Vickers F.B.5 (Fighting Biplane 5) known as the "Gunbus" was a British two-seat ‘pusher’ military biplane introduced into service in early 1915. The observer operated Armed a Lewis Gun at the front. It did not have the the speed or rate of climb to pursue and destroy its quarry. The Fokker developed a mystique of invincib- ility that was only countered by the capture of a complete aircraft in April 1916. Once this machine was flown against Allied aircraft in tests, it became clear that it was not particularly manoeuverable. The prevail-ing westerly wind had also favoured the Germans. (This aircraft is now in the London Science Museum). 13Anthony FokkerFokker 'eindecker'Restored ‘gunbus’

The Race to the Sea The confused series of battles and manoeuvres that took place after the Germans defeated the Allies at the Battle of the Aisne was later termed ‘The Race to the Sea’. The opposing sides real-ised that the advantage now lay to the North between their ori-ginal position on the Aisne and the Sea. A race began to take control of this position. Without weakening their grip on the growing defensive line of trenches, each army tried to outflank the other to gain the advantage. 14map 1

The Germans always held the initiative in their attempts to out-flank the Allied armies but the British and French were able to contain them on a line through Northern France and Belgium (see map 1 above). The route of the race was largely governed by the north-south railways available to each side, the French through Amiens and the Germans through Lille. It involved a number of battles: First Battle of the Aisne (13 to 28 September), First Battle of Picardy (22 to 26 September), the Battle of Albert (25 to 29 September), the First Battle of Artois (27 September to 10 October), the Battle of La Bassée (10 October to 2 November), the Battle of Messines (1914) (12 October to 2 November), the Battle of Armentières (13 October to 2 November) and… the Battle of the Yser (18 October to 30 November). T h e e a r l y B r i t i s h trenches were simple, as troops reached their battle objectives and dug i n. They were packed with men fight-i n g s h o u l d e r t o shoulder, initially lead-ing to heavy casualties from artillery fire. These trenches were made deeper with protected dugouts and ledges held by fewer men. 15Early British trench

Traverses (zig-zags) were added to provide cover against heavy shell bursts and attacking soldiers. Barbed wire was strung up to entangle attackers, and wiring parties went out every night to maintain and improve these forward defences. As the small, improvised trenches of the first few months grew deeper and more complex, they became vast areas of interlock-ing defensive works capable of resisting artillery bombardments and mass infantry assaults. Shell-proof dugouts became a high priority. The space between the opposing trenches was referred to as ‘no man's land’ and varied in width depending on the battlefield. On the ‘Western Front’, as this huge trench system became known, it was typically between 100!and!300!yards The race to the sea ended in mid-October 1914 at Ypres, the an-cient, fortified Flemish city guarding the ports of the English Channel and access to the North Sea beyond. British strategy was based on protecting the Channel ports – so defence here was vital. Superior German numbers and artillery forced the Allies into a series of fierce defensive battles. 16Later British trench

The First Battle of Ypres At the outset of the battle, Generals French and Foch were still hopeful that they could launch an offensive of their own to recap-ture the industrial city of Lille, Belgium, followed swiftly by Brus-sels.! The new German Army Chief of Staff, Falkenhayn, quickly shattered their optimistic beliefs. The battle developed in three battle phases: Battle of Langemarck: In the first phase of the battle between 21 and 24 October, the British 7th Division held off re-peated German assaults to the east of Ypres, while British I Corps to the north-east collided with powerful German forces around Langemarck. A series of determined de-fensive actions followed, in which, once again, Brit-ish rifle fire wreaked hav-oc aga in st repeated German mass infantry attacks, preventing an enemy breakthrough. All i e d Fron t Oct 20th 1914 A l l i e d f ro n t Nov 30th 1914 17map 2

Battle of Gheluvelt: In the second phase a new German attack between Gheluvelt and Messines, began on 29 October, culmin-ating in a crucial action on the 31st, when, in spite of desperate resistance, the British line was broken. Only the initiative of local commanders and a bold attack by the 2nd Worcesters restored the situation. Battle of Nonne Bosschen: A third major German assault on Ypres took place on 11 November when the Prussian Guard Divi-sion advanced along the Menin Road. This potentially decisive attack was checked by British field artillery and a hastily impro-vised rearguard force. 18

The First Indian VC The 129th Baluchis, newly arrived from India, were rushed to the frontline to support the hard-pressed British troops. On 31 Octo-ber, two companies of the Baluchis bore the brunt of the main German attack near the village of Gheluvelt in Hollebeke Sector. The out-numbered Baluchis fought gallantly but were over-whelmed, suffering heavy casualties. T h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y S e p o y Khudadad Khan’s machine-gun team fought until it was overrun. All t h e m e n w e r e k i l l e d e x c e p t Khudadad Khan, who despite being badly wounded, had continued work-ing his gun. He was left for dead by the enemy but, despite his wounds, he managed to crawl back to his re-giment during the night. Thanks to his bravery, and his fellow Baluchis, the Germans were held up just long enough for Indian and Brit-ish reinforcements to arrive. They strengthened the line, and prevented the German Army from reaching the vital ports. For this feat of courage and gallantry, Se-poy Khudadad Khan was awarded the Victoria Cross. Fighting continued along the entire front until 22 November when winter weather forced a break in hostilities. But the German drive to the Channel ports had failed. The area between the posi-tions established by both sides — from Ypres on the British side to Menin and Roulers on the German side – became known as the Ypres Salient – a region that would now see some of the war’s most bitter and brutal struggles. 19Sepoy Khudadad Khan VC

The First Battle of Ypres was a huge crisis for British and French command-ers and their staffs struggling to come to terms with the power of modern wea p on r y. Th e y were slow to adapt to extensive trench warfare and the changing balance between attack and defence. The cost in casual-ties of the fighting had been enorm-ous. British casual-ties were reported at 58,155, mostly pre-war professional soldiers, a loss the British army could ill-afford. French casualties were estimated at around 50,000, and German losses at 130,000 men. 20Sepoy Khudadad Khan VC

The Christmas Truce 1914 Christmas 1914 was the setting for one of the most poignant episodes in the whole war. It was only five months after the out-break of war in Europe and on December 7, 1914, Pope Benedict XV had suggested a temporary halt to the war for the celebration of Christmas. The warring countries refused to allow any official cease-fire, but on Christmas Day the soldiers on both sides in the trenches declared their own unofficial truce. It was one of the last examples of the outdated no-tion of chivalry between enemies engaged in war. It w a s n e v e r r e-p e a t e d — f u t u re attempts at holi-da y c e a s e fir e s were quashed by threats of discip-linary action—but it served as proof that, despite the brutal clash of weapons, the soldiers' essential humanity endured. Even a world war could not destroy the Christmas spirit. An article in ‘The Guardian’ newspaper by Maev Kennedy for Wednesday 8 November 2006 reports that the singer, Chris de Burgh bought a letter at auction because he had a strong person-al interest in the history of the first world war, in which his great uncle Thomas de Burgh was the first officer killed, and his grandfather, General Sir Eric de Burgh, served in the trenches. 21Newspaper version of the ‘Truce’

The letter is headed "British Expeditionary Force, Friday Decem-ber 25th 1914". It reads: "My Dear Mater, This will be the most memorable Christmas I've ever spent or likely to spend: since about tea time yesterday I don't think there’s been a shot fired on either side up to now. Last night turned a very clear frost moonlight night, so soon after dusk we had some decent fires going and had a few carols and songs. T h e G e r m a n s commenced by placing lights all along the edge of t h e i r t re n c h es and coming over to us - wishing us a Happy Christ-mas etc ... Some of our chaps went over to their lines. I think they’ve all come back bar one from 'E' Co. They no doubt kept him as a souvenir. There must be something in the spirit of Christmas as to day we are all on top of our trenches running about ... We also had some of the post this morning. I had a parcel from B. G's Lace Dept con-taining a sweater, smokes, under clothes etc. We also had a card from the Queen ... After breakfast we had a game of football at the back of our trenches! We've had a few Germans over to see us this morning. 22German troops decorating their trench

They also sent a party over to bury a sniper we shot in the week ... About 10.30 we had a short church parade the morning service etc. held in the trench ... Our dinner party started off with fried bacon and dip-bread: fol-lowed by hot Xmas Pudding. I had a mascot in my piece. Next item on the menu was muscatels and almonds, oranges, bananas, chocolate etc. followed by cocoa and smokes. You can guess we thought of the dinners at home. Just before dinner I had the pleasure of shaking hands with sever-al Germans ... I exchanged one of my balaclavas for a hat. I've also got a button off one of their tunics. We also exchanged smokes etc. and had a decent chat. They say they won't fire tomorrow if we don't so I suppose we shall get a bit of a holiday - perhaps ... We can hardly believe that we've been firing at them ... it all seems so strange. 23

With much love from Boy.” And so the year 1914 ended with the tragic stalemate that would last for the next four years. Many ghastly mistakes and mis-under-standings would scar the conflict between the Great Powers. Mil-lions would die or be maimed and cast aside by uncaring gov-ernments. However, through it all, the best minds and hearts of the British Army would persevere in learning the painful lessons and come to lead the finest British Army ever assembled in the low countries of Europe. In the last 100 days of 1918 it would put all the lessons of the previous disastrous years into one combined attack that would shatter the German Army and lead the Allied forces to vic-tory. To these men and all who suffered in the ‘War to end all Wars’ this volume and this series is dedicated. 24

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