Return to flip book view
A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERSForests for Maine FishForest Management for Fish and Riparian Wildlife Habitat
Do you enjoy strolling or skiing alongside a stream, river, pond, or lake? Do you seek refuge under the cool shady overstory on a hot summer day, or like to follow a winding trail alongside a stream that brings you to a neighbor’s eld or forest? ese special places are important not only for recreation; they are some of the most important habitats for numerous sh and wildlife species. Up to 85% of Maine vertebrate species use these riparian areas at some time during the year, and many aquatic species—especially Maine native Brook Trout and Atlantic Salmon—rely on these forests to provide the shade, erosion control, cool water, and food they need to thrive. For anyone interested in managing these riparian areas to enhance their value for sh and wildlife as part of a broader landscape approach to forest management, we have some suggestions for concrete steps you can take to do just that, based on the best scientic information available at this time. Read on to learn more about why riparian habitat is important for sh, wildlife, and people, and specic steps you can take to enhance habitat quality for sh as well as wildlife species that live in or frequently use shoreland and streamside riparian habitats. ere are numerous suggestions to choose from that can be tailored to a particular parcel or woodlot, and all are voluntary.2 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
INTRODUCTIONMaine forests go hand in hand with sh and wildlife. When managed with sh and wildlife in mind, forests can provide quality sh and wildlife habitat as well as benets for people, including abundant clean water, forest products, and recreational opportunities. is guide describes voluntary steps forest managers and landowners can take to enhance habitat quality for sh as well as wildlife species that live in or frequently use shoreland and streamside riparian habitats. While this guide is geared toward foresters and other land management professionals, landowners and others with an interest in sh and wildlife habitat can also use this guide to learn more about the importance of riparian habitat and how to enhance riparian habitat features and values. e guide builds on recommendations from Maine Forest Service’s Best Management Practices for Forestry: Protecting Maine’s Water Quality (BMPs) by including additional practices that can protect and enhance sheries habitat and the habitat used by wildlife in riparian areas. e guide provides more detailed suggestions for managing forests in shoreland and streamside areas within the context of the broader forest, including both an Inner Riparian Habitat Management Area (RMA) and an Outer Riparian Habitat Management Area. e goals of the Inner RMA are to maximize stream shading, recruitment of large in-stream wood, and ltering overland runo. e goals of the Outer RMA are to enhance habitat for riparian wildlife species that benet from a wider corridor of older forest, and to provide habitat connectivity in landscapes where riparian habitats intersect with large blocks of regenerating forest. Numbers used in this guide, such as riparian area width or percent cover, are intended to be used as guidelines rather than rigid harvesting rules. Landowners and managers should focus on achieving the desired riparian habitat conditions by adapting and applying the practices described in this guide based on current harvesting practices, site conditions, and landowner objectives. For example, landowners who harvest relatively low volumes of timber or use even-aged management in small patches are likely maintaining the desired riparian habitat conditions, while other landowners who harvest larger volumes of timber on a per-acre basis can enhance riparian habitat values by following these suggested practices. By combining the practices in this guide with those described in Maine Audubon’s two related publications, Forestry for Maine Birds (2017) and Focus Species Forestry (2007), landowners can manage their forests at the stand and landscape scale for forest products and the full range of ecological values.WHY FORESTS, STREAMSIDES, AND LAKE SHORELANDSare Important to Fish, Riparian Wildlife, and PeopleMaine’s 6,000 lakes and ponds and 45,000 miles of rivers and streams are a magnet for anglers, boaters, wildlife watchers, and other outdoor enthusiasts, and they are a centerpiece of the state’s recreation and tourism economy. Maine is the last stronghold in the United States for wild Eastern Brook Trout. Although the large sh found in some waters get much of the angling attention, Brook Trout are found in forested watersheds throughout the state that provide cool water, from small streams and ponds to larger rivers and lakes. While Maine is a renowned world-class shing destination for Brook Trout and Landlocked Salmon, anglers also pursue many other popular game sh in warmer waters. Clean water for all these species is critical to their ability to survive and thrive, long into the future.Forested areas along lakes, ponds, and streams, known as riparian habitats, are crucial to protecting habitat for sh and aquatic wildlife. In addition, riparian forests provide important habitat for many other wildlife species; approximately 85% of Maine vertebrate wildlife species use riparian habitats for some or all of their life cycle, including nesting, denning, feeding, drinking, and resting. On page 6 and 7 of this guide you will nd descriptions of key riparian habitat features found in well-managed riparian forests and examples of species associated with these habitats.Riparian areas include lands adjacent to pond and lake shores, streams (including rivers), and wetlands. Riparian areas help protect water quality, provide valuable habitat for many plant and wildlife species, and serve as a buffer that minimizes disturbance of wildlife in nearby waters. Riparian wildlife includes aquatic species like ducks, loons, herons, turtles, and salamanders as well as species that are associated with lake shorelands and streamside forests such as moose, mink, and birds like the Northern Waterthrush and Veery.FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS 3
Dusky SalamanderFIGURE 1. WILDLIFE USE OF RIPARIAN AREAS100’FeetDISTANCE FROM WATERCOLDWATER FISH: Habitat Protection & Enhancement0 to 100 FeetWHAT YOU CAN DO to Manage for Enhanced Riparian HabitatsIf you work in the woods, you are a watershed manager. You can help protect the health of water, wildlife, and habitat downstream by how you take care of the land. Riparian areas benet many wildlife species that use habitat several hundred feet or more from the water’s edge, and these habitat areas are typically much wider than areas required to protect water quality (Figure 1). Foresters and other land management professionals can help landowners reach these goals by following the suggestions below when managing land near streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and wetlands. Riparian areas benefit many wildlife species that use habitat several hundred feet or more from the water’s edge. Brook Trout Moose Canada WarblerRIPARIAN HABITAT and WILDLIFE TRAVEL CORRIDOR04 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
HARVESTING TIMBER WITHIN RIPARIAN HABITAT MANAGEMENT AREASe following suggestions for harvesting within the riparian habitat include an Inner Riparian Management Area designed to protect water quality and habitat for sh and other aquatic wildlife, and an Outer Riparian Management Area designed to provide habitat for other species that are highly dependent on riparian areas. Suggestions for shoreland and streamside management areas are described below and shown in Figure 2 (on pages 12-13). Within the Inner Riparian Management Area, the goals are to maximize stream shading, recruit large in-stream wood, lter runo, and provide mature-forest wildlife habitat. Examples of Wood Turtle250’600’1,100’species benetting include Brook Trout, Atlantic and Landlocked Salmon, other sh species, Bald Eagle, Moose, Great Blue Heron, and Common Loon. Because coldwater sh such as trout and salmon are especially sensitive to water temperature and water quality, the suggestions below include wider Inner Riparian Management Areas for water bodies with coldwater sh than for those without.e goals of the Outer Riparian Management Area are to maintain a wide area of relatively continuous, multi-age forest habitat that will provide breeding and feeding habitat, cover, and travel corridors for riparian and upland wildlife. Examples of species benetting include Wood Duck, Wood Turtle, White-tailed Deer (wintering habitat), American Marten, Fisher, Northern Waterthrush, and Barred Owl. Bobcat Silver-haired Bat Wood Duck American MartenRIPARIAN HABITAT and WILDLIFE TRAVEL CORRIDOR River OtterFORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS 5
Spawning Beds Forested tributary streams and rivers are the spawning grounds for Brook Trout, Landlocked Salmon, and other sh found in lakes and ponds. Intermittent Streams Species such as Northern Dusky Salamanders live at the edges of small streams with clean water that may dry up in summer. These streams are the capillaries that feed the larger streams, ponds, and lakes lower in the watershed and are critical to maintaining river and lake water quality and temperature. Brook Trout will sometimes spawn in headwater and intermittent streams, especially in locations with groundwater inuence. Water Quality Protection, Water Storage, and Shoreline Anchoring An undisturbed forest oor and dense, multilayered forest vegetation slow surface runoff, minimize soil erosion, and protect streams from excess pollutants such as phosphorus. The leaves, roots, and soil that make up the forest oor act as a sponge to absorb and lter runoff, which protects surface and groundwater that feeds streams, ponds, and lakes throughout the year. Tree and shrub roots prevent erosion by holding soil in place along banks and shorelines. Screening to Minimize Wildlife Disturbance Great Blue Herons, American Bitterns, Black Ducks, and other birds stalk the shallows for small sh, frogs, and insects. Because people also enjoy living near lakes, rivers, and streams, shoreland forests provide a screen that limits disturbances between people and wildlife. Coldwater Fish Habitat Wild Brook Trout are found in forested watersheds and require cool, clean, oxygen-rich water. Intact forested buffers lter surface runoff and provide maximum shade that helps keep streams clear and cool, and protect coldwater sheries downstream in lakes and ponds. Brook Trout are also found in some tidal areas, but they prefer to spawn in forested freshwater streams. Other coldwater sh include Landlocked Salmon, Sea-run Atlantic Salmon, Togue (Lake Trout), Arctic Char, and Lake Whitesh. Aquatic Food Webs Fallen leaves and wood from the forest support much of the life in Maine streams and lakes. Mayies and other aquatic insects that feed on leaf litter are then consumed by trout, frogs, and birds, which in turn feed larger predators. Even in large lakes, organic material from forests along lake shores and tributary streams is important for supporting lake life. Stream Structure Trees that fall into water provide shelter for sh to hide from predators, and create pools where insects and other food sources circulate. If deep enough, these pools provide trout and salmon an oxygen-rich, cool-water refuge from summer heat. Eddies created by in-stream wood also deposit gravel that forms beds used by spawning sh.RIPARIAN HABITAT AND WILDLIFE Riparian Habitat Features and Examples of Associated Species6 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
Nesting and Resting Habitat Ospreys prefer to nest in tall shoreland trees and feed in lakes and rivers. Most nests are found within 2,300 feet of water but may be found up to three miles away. Ospreys feed only on sh, and sh also make up a signicant part of the diet of Bald Eagles. Cavity Nesting Ducks Large trees (greater than 14” in diameter) that have hollow cavities and are typically within 600 feet of water provide nesting sites for Wood Ducks. Other ducks that nest in cavity trees nearer to water include Common Mergansers, Hooded Mergansers, and Common Goldeneyes. Loon Habitat Common Loons feed on sh in larger lakes and ponds. They need clean, clear water to see and catch their food. Healthy water habitat for loons and other lake inhabitants depends on protecting water quality throughout the watershed. Songbirds of Forested Wetlands and Shoreland Forests Understory vegetation in these forests is important breeding habitat for the Canada Warbler as well as Veery, Northern Waterthrush, and many other species. Moose Summer Habitat Moose are highly dependent on nutritious aquatic plants in summer, and on hot summer days they seek refuge in cool forested wetlands. Other important aquatic and semi-aquatic mammals include River Otter, Beaver, and American Mink. Deer Wintering Areas Deer wintering areas are commonly found in wetland and evergreen forests near streams and lakes, and deer and other mammals frequently use these areas as travel corridors or to search for food. Wood Turtle Habitat This semi-terrestrial species winters in forest streams but spends the remainder of the year in adjacent forests up to a quarter-mile from streams. In spring and early summer, it lays its eggs in sandy soils up to 900 feet from the stream.. Habitat for Vernal Pool Species Spotted Salamanders, Blue-spotted Salamanders, and Wood Frogs spend most of the year in forests surrounding isolated vernal pools. In the spring they migrate to the pools to breed before returning to their homes in the forest oor. Bat Roosting and Nursing Several species of bats forage for insects over streams, ponds, and wetlands and over adjacent riparian forests. Some, like this Silver-haired Bat, roost and raise their young in riparian areas with large trees with loose bark or cavities up to 1,100 feet from water. Travel Corridors and Habitat Connections Where clearcutting or other heavy cutting are common, forests adjacent to streams, ponds, and wetlands often form the nucleus of mature forest habitat blocks and they also create a network of travel corridors that is critical to many species. Many upland species such as bobcats and other predators spend a signicant amount of time hunting in shoreland habitats. BenetstoSociety Watershed protection benets people as well as wildlife. Many towns and cities in Maine depend on healthy watersheds for clean drinking water, and more than half of Mainers get their drinking water from lakes. Lakefront property values and our enjoyment of lakes are directly linked to lake water quality.FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS 7
Note: Inner and Outer RMA widths (described below) and suggested management practices within them are guidelines, not something to be rigorously measured in the eld. Management of riparian areas is intended to be adaptive, guided by the goal of enhancing riparian values. Land managers are encouraged to modify the practices described based on site conditions such as soils, topography, the nature and condition of the riparian stand, and intensity of the adjacent harvest. Landowners who harvest relatively low volumes of timber or use even-aged management in small patches are likely maintaining the desired riparian habitat conditions described in this guide, while other landown-ers who harvest larger volumes of timber on a per-acre basis may enhance riparian habitat by implementing these practices.All Riparian Management Areas (RMA) • Modify the width of riparian areas and harvesting practices as needed to ensure that riparian management goals in Table 1 are met. is may result in smaller or larger widths depending on site conditions.• Avoid soil disturbance, such as compaction, ruts, or exposing bare soil that will increase the risk of sediment reaching streams. Always apply appropriate Best Management Practices (BMPs) to control erosion and ensure that no sediment can reach surface waters. • Whenever possible there should be no new truck roads within the inner or outer areas. Evaluate the potential and relative impact of rerouting existing roads that threaten water quality. If not possible, follow Stream Smart principles and BMPs for any new stream crossings, and in all cases modify drainage and apply BMPs as needed to ensure that no sediment or direct runo reaches streams. • When winter harvests are planned, ag seeps and intermittent streams before snowfall to ensure their protection when they are hidden by snow.• Leave dead trees (when safe to do so), cavity trees, and other large, live trees around all water bodies and wetlands. ese will provide nesting sites for eagles, ospreys, cavity nesting ducks and other species, and will contribute to future stream habitat structure. • Minimize the use of herbicides or insecticides except where necessary to control invasive plants or insects.• Follow all state and local regulatory standards, some of which may be more restrictive than these suggestions.TABLE 1. RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT AREA (RMA) GOALSDIFFERENT RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT AREASWATER BODY TYPEAll water bodies: intermittent and perennial streams; lakes, ponds, and their tributaries; and associated fringe and oodplain wetlands.• Protect water quality and avoid all soil disturbances that will result in sediment reaching streams.• Maximize stream shading & mature forest conditions throughout the Inner • Protect water quality and avoid all soil distur-bances that will result in sediment reaching streams.Seeps and intermittent streamsPerennial streams and rivers, lakes, ponds and non-forested wetlands.• Protect water quality and avoid all soil disturbances that will result in sediment reaching streams.• Maintain intact, multi-aged forest or a forest with small even-aged patches of all age classes to serve as breeding and feeding habitat, cover, and travel PRIMARY MANAGEMENT GOALSSPECIES THAT BENEFITBrook TroutAtlantic & Landlocked Salmon (& other sh species)MacroinvertebratesBald EagleMooseGreat Blue HeronCommon LoonMacroinvertebratesBrook TroutAtlantic & Landlocked SalmonWood DuckWood TurtleWhite-tailed Deer (wintering habitat)American MartenFisherNorthern WaterthrushBarred OwlOUTER MANAGEMENT AREARiparian Management Area.• Manage for old trees that will eventually contribute to large in-stream wood.• Provide habitat for wildlife species associated with riparian areascorridors for wildlife associated with riparian areas.• As water bodies increase in size, ensure there is quality habitat for all riparian species, some of which may utilize habitats 600 feet or more from water (for details see Outer Riparian Management Area discussion and suggestions, page 10).INNER MANAGEMENTPRACTICES FOR ENHANCING RIPARIAN HABITATS8 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
HOW TO IDENTIFY COLDWATER FISH HABITATColdwater Fish Habitat as used in this guide includes Maine’s Heritage Fish Waters, Wild Brook Trout Priority Conservation Areas, Atlantic Salmon Critical Habitats, and other waters where coldwater sh species are present. 1. Heritage Fish Waters and Wild Brook Trout Priority Conservation Areas are found statewide and can be viewed on MDIFW Beginning with Habitat maps. Management suggestions should be applied to the mapped areas as well as to their tributaries, both mapped and unmapped. 2. Atlantic Salmon Critical Habitats include rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds within watersheds designated and mapped as Atlantic Salmon Critical Habitat by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and shown on the Maine Stream Habitat Viewer. 3. Other coldwater sheries include waterbodies with Landlocked Salmon, Lake Trout, Rainbow Trout, Brown Trout, Arctic Char, Lake Whitesh, and Round Whitesh. MDIFW online and printed shing guides, regional sheries biologists, and local knowledge may be helpful in identifying these waters.1. Ensuring that harvesting equipment does not create ruts or otherwise result in soil conditions that will increase the chance of runo reaching streams.2. Avoiding or minimizing stream crossings.3. Increasing the Inner Riparian Management Area widths and modifying BMPs as needed when site conditions such as steep slopes, vulnerable soils, and poor drainage increase risk to soil and stand stability. Recommended Inner RMA Widths (see Figure 2, pgs. 12-13)• Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife (MDIFW) recommends establishing a riparian management area within 100 feet of Brook Trout waters; a minimum of 100 feet is also recommended for Atlantic Salmon waters in Maine. is approach will help protect habitat quality for all coldwater sh species. Measure this distance from the water-body and its associated fringe and oodplain wetlands. • For streams and other waterbodies that are primarily warm-water sh habitat (Smallmouth and Largemouth Bass, perch, pickerel, etc.), a 50-foot Inner RMA is adequate. • Expand the Inner Riparian Management Area width when steep slopes or sensitive soils increase the risk of erosion and sedimentation or windthrow. Inner RMA Management (see Figure 2, pgs. 12-13)• For landowners whose primary goal is sh conservation, maintaining an uncut buer that is at least one mature tree height in width (60-80’, taller for White Pine) is the best way to ensure long-term recruitment of trees that will maximize stream shading and contribute to large in-stream wood. is will also avoid disturbance that could lead to sediment reach-ing streams. Beyond the no-cut zone within the remainder of the Inner RMA, maintain an intact and stable mature stand of trees to benet both sh and other wildlife. • For landowners who wish to actively manage for timber in the Inner RMA, retaining an abundance of tall trees will ensure that streams are well shaded and will receive am-ple quantities of leaf litter and large dead wood. MDIFW recommends limiting the harvest of trees and alteration of other vegetation to maintain a windrm, mature stand with a relatively uniform crown closure of at least 60-70%. • Leave abundant large trees that will eventually fall into the stream and enhance sh and aquatic insect habitat. Felling trees into streams under an approved “chop and drop” in-stream restoration plan can provide more immediate results, but is not an alternative to long-term management for large-wood recruitment.• Follow water quality BMPs, which includes: INNER RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT AREAFORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS 9
Habitat Functions and Management Goalse principal function of the Outer RMA is to serve as breed-ing and feeding habitat, cover, and travel corridors for wildlife associated with riparian areas. Many forestry riparian habitat guidelines for this region recommend RMAs that extend 250 or 330 feet from the edges of water bodies. While RMAs of this width will benet many riparian species, other riparian species frequently use riparian habitats from 250 feet to 600 or more feet from lakes, ponds, streams, and wetlands. ese include Wood Turtle, Common Snapping Turtle, Wood Duck, Beaver, Red-shouldered Hawk, Bald Eagle, and ve species of tree- nesting bats. e goal of management in the Outer RMA is to maintain abun-dant quality habitat for all riparian species and facilitate wildlife movement across the landscape, through riparian areas and between riparian and upland habitats. is goal can be accom-plished by using single-tree selection, group selection, or meth-ods such as irregular shelterwood management. Single-tree and The clearcuts and harvesting in this image have degraded the Inner RMA and eliminated most of the forest cover in the outer RMA. Source: ESRI SatelliteWhen clearcuts and other harvests that remove more than 50% of the volume are planned, the RMA habitat goals can be met by extending the Outer RMA beyond 250 feet as in this image. Source: ESRI SatelliteHOW TIMBER HARVESTING IMPACTS OUTER RMA VALUESCreating large areas of regenerating forest in or near riparian areas can greatly impact the habitat suitability for riparian species and other wildlife in several ways. First, a signicant portion of the habitat used by some riparian species, such as those listed under Outer RMA Habitat Functions, will be lost if there are extensive areas of regenerating forest within 250–300 feet of the water body. Second, these large blocks of young forest can isolate riparian areas from older upland forest habitats, thereby limiting access to the riparian area for many upland species that avoid clearcuts and regenerating forest but frequently use riparian habitats. Third, riparian areas function as important habitat and travel corridors for many riparian and non-riparian species, but travel corridor value is signicantly diminished for species that avoid young regenerating forests when corridors are less than about 600 feet wide. Photos below show how riparian habitat values can be maintained in watersheds where clearcutting and other high volume-per-acre harvesting are practiced. group selection can be used to develop and maintain multi-aged stands with complex structure and good canopy cover. Methods such as irregular shelterwood management can be applied to create a mosaic of patches of dierent age classes within stands and throughout the riparian area, as long as the preponderance of those patches are in an older age or size class. If your current management creates conditions similar to those described under Outer RMA Management (on page 11), then you are already meeting the desired habitat conditions of the Outer RMA and there is no reason to modify your management. For timberland owners whose management results in high vol-ume-per-acre timber removals and frequent patches of younger forest larger than 1/4 acre within 600 feet of water bodies and wetlands, the Outer RMA habitat goals (Table 1) are unlikely to be met. For those landowners, implementing the Outer RMA practices described below will maintain and/or restore important riparian habitat functions.OUTER RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT AREA10 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
Suggested Outer RMA Widths (see Figure 2, p. 12-13)• Seeps and intermittent streams: from the Inner RMA to 150 feet from the waterbody or its associated wetland edge. • Mapped and unmapped headwater (rst-order) streams; ponds and non-forested wetlands <10 acres: from the Inner RMA to 250 feet from the waterbody edge or non-forested wetland edge. • Other streams, ponds, lakes, and non-forested wetlands >10 acres: Vary the width depending on the type and extent of harvest removals in adjacent stands. An Outer RMA extending to 250 feet from the waterbody or wetland edge should meet the RMA goals where landowners use uneven-aged management or moderate partial harvesting in adjacent stands beyond 250 feet (for example, 30-40% volume removals on a 20- to 30-year cylce). However, when clearcuts, overstory removal harvests, or other harvests that result in less than 50% crown closure are adjacent to the Outer RMA, the Outer RMA width should increase from 250 feet from the waterbody or wetland edge to as much as 600 feet.Outer RMA Management (see Figure 2, p. 12-13)• Manage for long-lived species such as Red Spruce, Yellow Birch, and Sugar Maple, and grow trees to the large sawtim-ber class as stand site conditions permit. • For Outer RMAs within 250 feet of a water body or wetland edge: - Use single-tree or group selection harvests to maintain an average of at least 60-70% crown closure, and limit open-ings to 1/4 acre in size, or - Manage with the irregular shelterwood system, main-taining at least two and preferably three cohorts in all stands.Seek to maintain a majority of the area with 60-70% crown closure; areas of lower crown cover are acceptable where silviculturally appropriate and allowed by state or local regulations. • For RMAs that extend beyond 250 feet (see Suggested Outer RMA Widths above):- Maintain an average of 50% or higher crown closure of trees at least 40 feet tall along a majority of the Outer RMA that extends beyond 250 feet. - Limit canopy openings greater than 1/4 acre to less than 20% of an Outer RMA within any one-mile section of the waterbody at any point in time.Note: e preceding guidelines are intended to describe how the habitat functions of RMAs can be planned and managed to maintain a landscape with intact riparian habitat and connecting corridors along the riparian area and between the riparian area and adjacent upland forests. e guidelines are not intended to be a one-size-ts-all formula. Focusing on outcomes with the desired riparian habitat conditions is the best approach to developing RMA management strategies; landowners and managers should use informed judgment and adapt the guidelines so that the desired habitat conditions are maintained or restored throughout the Inner and Outer RMA. First-order streams are small perennial streams at the upper end of the watershed. Second-order streams are somewhat larger perennial streams where two rst-order streams come together. Third-order streams are larger streams or small rivers, formed when two second-order streams join together. Fourth-order streams are typically larger rivers, formed when two third-order streams join together.USING STREAM ORDER AS A GUIDE TO ESTABLISHING RMA WIDTHSStream order is often used as a guide to establish the width of riparian management areas because the number of species that use riparian areas, including species that use habitat several hundred feet or more from a water body, increases with waterbody size. However, stream size and the resulting habitat values can vary greatly for any given stream. For example, some third-order streams may be quite small in watersheds with many small tributaries, while a second-order stream may drain a large watershed. With that in mind, stream order may be used as a starting point, but then establish riparian management areas based on local site conditions. 1111112222331STREAM ORDERINGFORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS 11
FIGURE 2: SHORELAND AND STREAMSIDE HABITAT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES PROTECT VERNAL POOLS• Use Forestry Habitat Management Guidelines for Vernal Pool Wildlife when managing near vernal pools.• Where a cluster of pools occur, treat as one large pool.TROUT AND SALMON ARE ESPECIALLY SENSITIVE• See MDIFW Beginning with Habitat Maps to locate Heritage Fish Waters and Wild Brook Trout Conservation Areas that would benet from a 100’ buffer. These maps only show the most well-known habitats, and additional trout habitat may be present in your area.• Include mapped and unmapped tributaries in your riparian habitat management plan.VERNAL POOLSAVOID STREAM CROSSINGS whenever possible. BE STREAM SMART Use the Stream Smart stream crossing recommendations in the“Fish Passage” section of Maine Forest Service’s BMP guidebook.PERENNIAL STREAMSMAINTAIN HEALTHY WATERS Use Maine Forest Service’s Best Management Practices for Forestry guidebook to locate, build, and maintain forest roads, trails, and landings to ensure that sediment will not reach surface waters. RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT AREA GOALSInner RMA: Maximize protection of habitat for sh and other aquatic species.Outer RMA: Provide breeding and feeding habitat, cover, and travel corridors for riparian and upland wildlife.Notes. See the report text for details. Use professional judgement to modify RMA practices based on site conditions and percent of canopy removal when harvesting in and adjacent to the RMA and in the surrounding landscape.12 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
LOCATE RECREATION TRAILS FOR WILDLIFE AND PEOPLE• Maintain a minimum 75-foot setback from the water’s edge to minimize disturbance to wildlife, except for stream crossings and side trails to viewpoints.• Across the property, create trail-free areas to reduce wildlife disturbance. INNER RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT AREA, 0-100’ Maintain mature forest conditions that will maximize shade, recruitment of large downed wood, and sediment ltering. OUTER RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT AREA Maintain relatively mature forest habitat within 150’ of intermittent streams and 250’ of rst- and second-order streams and non-forested wetlands <10 acres in size. On larger water bodies, 250’ to 600’, maintain intact forest habitat by limiting clearcuts and overstory removal harvests. RESTORE RIPARIAN HABITAT WHERE IT IS MISSING OR DEGRADED ADAPT TO CLIMATE CHANGE• Use oversized culverts to accommodate more intense rain events; manage for a diversity of tree species; and adopt other recommended adaptation strategies.• Maintaining relatively mature forest conditions in RMAs can help store more carbon than in more intensively managed forest areas.REMEMBER FISH AND WILDLIFE WHILE MANAGING THE SURROUNDING LANDSCAPE• Use the Forestry for Maine Birds habitat goals for landscapes of 2,500 acres or more to maintain an optimum age-class balance for wildlife.• Maintain habitat connectivity between riparian areas and other relatively mature upland forest areas. • Limiting the percent of small watersheds regenerated by even-aged harvests may reduce the risk of stream channel damage caused by excessive runoff.FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS’ GUIDEBOOK 13
MANAGE THE ENTIRE FOREST TO PROTECT WATER QUALITY AND STREAMSIDE HABITATSThis image of the Kennebago Lake watershed shows how the RMAs described in this guide t within a larger managed-forest landscape. Large, even-aged harvest blocks are located beyond 250’ on rst-order streams and beyond 600’ on larger streams and ponds >10 acres.In addition to high runo and degradation of water quality, extensive clearcutting and overstory removal adjacent to riparian areas can isolate riparian habitats from upland areas and limit wildlife movement across the landscape. Adopting the following practices for managing the entire forested landscape, including riparian and non-riparian areas, will further enhance sh and wildlife habitat:• Where clearcutting and overstory removal are practiced, maintain wildlife travel corridors or other habitat con-nections of intermediate- and older-aged forests between watersheds and between riparian areas and upland habitats.• Use Best Management Practices for water quality in all areas of the forest. Proper construction and maintenance of roads and skid trail drainage features throughout the forest can prevent sediment from reaching ponds, lakes, and streams.• If you own or manage land in blocks of 2,500 acres or more, use the above table summarized from Maine Audubon’s Forestry for Maine Birds to ensure a healthy age class balance across the ownership. If you own or manage land in parcels of less than 2,500 acres, consider how the property ts into the surrounding landscape and manage the land in a way that helps ll a gap in the landscape. Managing toward the landscape habitat goals in this table will also ensure that extensive clearcutting will not result in excessive runo and damaging stream ows.Refer to Forestry for Maine Birds for more information on how to apply these landscape goals to small and large ownerships and for other habitat management recommendations. See Maine Audubon’s Focus Species Forestry guide for habitat management recommendations for mammals, reptiles, and amphibians in addition to birds. YOUNG 10-20% Seedling & Saplings dominant INTERMEDIATE AGE FOREST 20-40% MATURING 40-50% Small Sawtimber OLD/COMPLEX FOREST >10% Large Sawtimber Forest Stand Age Landscape & Size Class GoalHABITAT GOALS FOR FORESTED LANDSCAPES OF 2,500+ ACRESWhile careful management of shoreland and streamside habitats is essential to protecting and enhancing stream and riparian habitat values, shoreland and streamside habitats and sheries are also strongly aected by how the entire forested area around these habitats is managed. For example, in a review of watershed studies applicable to the Northeast, Hornbeck (1993) found that clearcutting rst-order stream catchments resulted in an approximately 35-70% increase in annual stream ow, declining to normal ow within about 10 years. A study prepared for Trout Unlimited found that Maine watersheds with steep slopes, a preponderance of shallow to bedrock soils and basal till soils, and where softwoods are dominant, pose the highest risk for runo that could damage stream channels (Buer and Watershed Man-agement Recommendations for Brook Trout Habitat Conservation, Trout Unlimited 2005). In rst- and second-order watersheds, the risk of sedimentation and stream channel damage caused by ex-cessive runo, especially from extreme storms, can be reduced by limiting the area regenerated by even-aged harvests at any time. For example, Biodiversity in the Forests of Maine: Guidelines for Land Management (Flatebo et al., 1999) and the 2005 Trout Un-limited report suggest that land managers limit the area in stands less than 10 to 15 years of age to less than 25% of the watershed. 14 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
PROTECT AND BUFFER VERNAL POOLS Vernal pools—typically shless shallow depressions lled with water only part of the year—are often found in oodplain forests or riparian areas. ese pools provide critical spring breeding habitat for Spotted and Blue-spotted Salamanders, Wood Frogs, and Fairy Shrimp. You can help conserve these habitats by:• Following the Forestry Habitat Management Guidelines for Vernal Pool Wildlife. is will protect both breeding pools and the adjacent forested habitat used by these amphibians outside of the breeding season. A copy of the guidelines may be found on the Maine Forest Service Water Resources webpage and on Maine Audubon’s Conser-vation Resources & Publications webpage. • Applying management guidelines to the entire group as if it were a single pool, where pools are clustered together.A summary of management guidelines is included in Figure 2. ENHANCE IN-STREAM COLDWATER FISH HABITAT • Because natural stream processes have been altered in many areas through historical practices, strategically placing large logs in streams with coldwater sh can provide shelter from predators, create ries and pools where sh can nd food and refuge from summer heat, improve spawning habitat, and increase stream oxygen. Landowners and managers who are interested in stream enhancement projects can visit the Maine Forest Service Water Resources website for more information about which techniques might be most suitable for their streams. • In-stream habitat enhancement is only allowed under a plan meeting certain regulatory requirements. e plan must be approved by MDIFW or the Maine Department of Marine Resources (DMR). • A licensed forester who has completed training in wood ad-dition techniques approved by the Maine Forest Service and MDIFW must oversee the process. In addition, the forester must work with a sheries biologist employed or approved by MDIFW or DMR. MAINTAIN AND RESTORE STREAM CONNECTIVITYCulverts and dams frequently prevent movement by sh and other organisms, often shutting them o from feeding, spawning, and nursery areas, limiting access to coldwater refuges in the summer, and fragmenting populations. • Forest landowners, loggers, and other land managers should replace undersized and hanging culverts and install new crossings using the Stream Smart recommendations in the “Fish Passage” section of Maine Forest Service’s BMP guidebook.• Additional information can be found at maineaudubon.org/streamsmartADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONSNatural Bottom CulvertHanging CulvertFORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS 15
RESTORE MISSING OR DEGRADED RIPARIAN HABITATAgriculture development and other historical land use practices have resulted in signicant loss of and impacts to forested shore-land habitat, including increased runo and sedimentation that can degrade water quality and sh and wildlife habitat. Restor-ing forested buers is especially benecial in disturbed areas such as along tilled cropland, pastureland, large hayelds, gravel pits, and similar areas. Recommended practices include: • Revegetating eroding banks and other areas of exposed soil where erosion will result in sediment reaching streams, rivers, ponds, or lakes. • Restoring forested buers within 100 feet of the water wher-ever this vegetation is missing between elds and streams, to lter runo, protect stream banks, and provide wildlife habitat. Allow natural regeneration to occur or plant trees and shrubs where necessary to speed up the process.• Erecting fencing to keep livestock out of streams and away from stream banks.• Reducing or removing as many invasive herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees as possible (consistent with regulatory requirements) and replanting when necessary. DESIGN RECREATION TRAILS FOR WILDLIFE AND PEOPLEHuman activity on trails such as hiking, biking, skiing, and motorized recreation can disturb wildlife up to several hundred feet from the trail. Trails near water features can be especially problematic because of the high concentration and sensitive nature of wildlife use. Additionally, erosion and sedimentation from all trails can impact water quality. • Trails may be designed to provide occasional water views, but should not run directly alongside waterbodies for any signicant distance. To minimize wildlife disturbance, maintain a minimum 75-foot setback from waterbodies and non-forested wetlands, except for stream crossings and side trails to viewpoints.• Follow the trail layout concepts shown in Figure 2 to mini-mize sh and wildlife disturbance in riparian areas. • Build and maintain trails to recognized standards for the intended use (hiking, ATV, biking, horses, etc.) to protect water quality and minimize damage to tree roots from trail compaction and erosion.• Across the property, locate trails to create trail-free areas to ensure some areas are free from human disturbance to wildlife. Where trails are already in place, consider closing some trails to accomplish this goal. For more on this subject, see New Hampshire Fish and Game’s Trails for People and Wildlife: A Guide to Planning Trails that allow People to Enjoy Nature and Wildlife to rive.16 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
USE RIPARIAN HABITAT AS PART OF A CLIMATE RESILIENCE STRATEGY Among the many benets riparian habitats provide, storing carbon in trees, roots, and soil is becoming ever more important. Well-managed riparian forests can store abundant amounts of atmospheric carbon, and are emerging as key components of state, national, and global strategies to mitigate climate change, including in Maine’s Climate Action Plan, Maine Won’t Wait. Be-cause riparian forests are generally more mature than surround-ing forests, they can account for a signicant share of a forest’s overall carbon storage. In addition, by maintaining or enhancing a wide diversity of tree species and ages in the riparian area, you can improve the likelihood that the forest will be resilient even as pests, invasive species, or severe weather events become more common and widespread as a result of climate disturbances. You can improve the climate resiliency of your riparian forest and increase both carbon sequestration and storage by:• Establishing a wide no-cut Inner Riparian Habitat Manage-ment Area (100–250 feet or more) and a wide Outer Ripar-ian Habitat Management Area (beyond 250–600 feet) to help sequester and store more carbon over time and enhance habitat in riparian areas. • Managing the Inner and Outer RMA so they are dominated by stands of older and larger trees in the overstory (which tend to store more carbon over time) with younger trees in the midstory and understory (which tend to sequester, or take up, carbon at a faster rate), to maximize both carbon capture and sh and wildlife habitat benets.ENHANCE RIPARIAN HABITAT MANAGEMENT ON CONSERVATION OWNERSHIPSFor the purposes of this guide, conservation ownerships include land owned by a land trust or other private conservation group, public lands, and other ownerships on which the landowner wishes to protect and enhance habitat for sh and wildlife. ese landowners have a particular opportunity to go beyond what some other forest landowners may be ready, able, or willing to do to protect and enhance riparian habitat, such as adopting a no-harvest Inner RMA, a wide Outer RMA, or specic targets for older forest or minimum stocking level at the landscape scale. When protecting land througheasement or fee purchase,private and public landowners and funders of land conservation projectscanall take a more active role ensuring the full suite of habitat values are identied and conserved byrequiringstrong riparian habitat protection measures. ese protections are strongest when included in a conservation easement. When new conservation easements are being established, incorporating the RMA recommendations in this guide either in the easement itself or in an approved Ecological Management Plan or Forest Management Plan that is tied to strong easement purposes and goals will ensure long-term protection of riparian habitats and values. For land already under easement protection, voluntarily adopting these practices in management plans is recommended. FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS 17
If you’re interested in learning more, you can nd additional informa-tion, including useful publications and websites, on the Forestry for Maine Birds webpage at maineaudubon.org/FFMB.PROGRAMS FOR MAINE FOREST LANDOWNERS AND MANAGERSe Maine Forest Service (MFS) assists private landowners through the Forest Stewardship Program and municipal landowners though Project Canopy. Contact MFS about these programs and for a free site visit from a MFS District Forester. Maine’s “Chop and Drop” program is available to landowners wishing to improve in-stream habitat using felled trees. Contact MFS for pro-gram requirements and a list of qualied professionals. e USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) has several cost-share programs for conservation practices and may provide nancial support to landowners with a qualifying forest management plan. NRCS has funding for new stream crossings, replacing old stream crossings to provide passage for sh and other aquatic organisms, stream habitat improvement, forested buers along water bodies, streambank and shoreline protection, and forest trails and landings. Availability may vary by year and by county. Contact your county NRCS oce for more information. e Maine Natural Areas Program oers great information on the identication, threats, and management of invasive plants.REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONBryan, 2007. Focus Species Forestry: A Guide to Integrating Timber and Biodiversity Management in Maine. Maine Audubon. See sections on Riparian and Wetland Forest, Brook Trout, and other habitat types. Flatebo et al., 1999. Biodiversity in the Forests of Maine: Guidelines for Land Management. University of Maine Cooperative Extension, Bulletin #7147Haberstock et al, 2000. Method to identify eective riparian buer widths for Atlantic salmon habitat protection. J. American Water Assoc., vol. 36, no. 6, Dec. 2000.Hornbeck, 1993. Long-term impacts of forest treatments on water yields; a summary for northeastern USA. J. Hydrology 150, 323-344Maine Audubon Stream Smart Program. Recommendations for constructing road crossings of streams to ensure sh and wildlife passage. streamsmartmaine.orgRESOURCESPrograms, Publications, and Websites for Maine Forest and Farm Landowners and ManagersMaine Audubon, 2006. Conserving Wildlife in Maine’s Shoreland Habitats. Describes wildlife use of shoreland habitat and strategies for conserving it.Maine Audubon, 2017. Forestry for Maine Birds: A Guidebook for Foresters Managing Woodlots “With Birds in Mind.” Describes habitat needs and recommended management practices for 20 priority forest birds that span Maine’s forest types and regions. maineaudubon.org/FFMBMaine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, Beginning with Habitat Maps. Important sh and wildlife habitats and management recommendations. Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. Forest Management Recommendations for Brook Trout.Maine Forest Service, 2017. Best Management Practices for Forestry: Protecting Maine’s Water Quality.National Park Service. North Country Handbook for Design, Maintenance and Construction.New Hampshire Fish and Game Department. Trails for People and Wildlife: A Guide to Planning Trails that allow People to Enjoy Nature and Wildlife to rive.Raymond, P, et al. 2009. e Irregular Shelterwood System: Review, Classication, and Potential Application to Forests Aected by Partial Disturbances. Journal of Forestry, Dec 2009. p. 405-413. Society of American Foresters.Trout Unlimited, 2005. Buer and Watershed Management Recommendations for Brook Trout Habitat Conservation. Focus: Mountainous Brook Trout Watersheds of Western Maine and Northern New Hampshire. Trout Unlimited, Augusta, ME. Vernal Pool Management Guidelines. For concise summaries see the Maine Forest Service Forest Management and Vernal Pools Fact Sheet; for more detail see Forestry Habitat Management Guidelines for Vernal Pool Wildlife. Photo credits:Cover: (Background landscape) © Bob Shea/Unsplash.com; (Mayy) ©Johan Hansson/Flckr; (Wood Turtle) ©USFWS/Flckr; (Northern Dusky Salamander) ©Dave Huth/Flckr; (Veery) ©Je Schmoyer; (Siver-haired Bat) ©Virginia State Parks/Flckr; (Beavers) ©Elizabeth Haslam/Flckr; Page 2: ©Kelly Sikkema/Unsplash.com; Page 4: (Brook Trout) ©sheyeguy.com; (Canada Warbler) ©Fyn Kynd/Flckr; (Moose) ©powerfulmary@gmail.com; Page 5: (American Marten) ©LevFrid; (Wood Duck) ©Wingyi Kung/USFWS; (Wood Turtle) ©USFWS; (Silver-haired Bat) ©Virginia State Parks/Flckr; Page 6: (Mayy) ©Johan Hansson/Flckr; (Stream Structure) ©Joshua Mayer/Flckr; (Northern Dusky Salamander) ©Dave Huth/Flckr; (Riparian Forest) ©Karen Hooper; (Great Blue Heron) ©Tony Sprezzatura/Flckr; Page 7: (Loon) ©Nick Leadley; (Canada Warbler) ©Ken James; (Deer) ©kfolsom101@gmail.com; (Wood Turtle) ©USFWS; (Silver-haired Bat) ©Virginia State Parks/Flckr; (Child) ©Cudinski/Flckr; Page 9: ©USFWS; Page 15: ©Aram Calhoun; Page 16: Sally Stockwell; Page 17: (Riparian Habitat) ©the piper351/Flckr; (Riparian Forest) ©Karen Hooper; Page 18: ©KESmith; Page 20: ©Je Romano18 FORESTS FOR MAINE FISH: A GUIDEBOOK FOR FORESTERS AND LAND MANAGERS
We would like to thank the following organizations for providing comments on earlier versions, which greatly improved the nal document, and for agreeing to partner with us on Forests for Maine Fish:Atlantic Salmon Federation; Forest Stewards Guild; Lakes Environmental Association; Maine Lakes; Maine TREE; Professional Logging Contractors of the Northeast; Trout Unlimited; Trust to Conserve Northeast Forestlands.In addition, the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife provided extensive comments on previous versions, and we thank them for their expertise and support.Authors: Robert Bryan, ecologist and licensed consulting forester Sally Stockwell, Director of Conservation, Maine AudubonEditor: Melissa Kim, Director of Communications, Maine AudubonDesigner: Brandi Sladek, Graphic Design Manager, Maine Audubon
THANK YOU FOR BEING A WATERSHED CARETAKEROur forests and farmlands are all part of a larger landscape and watershed. How we care for and manage our lands has consequences for sh, wildlife, people, and the water upon which we all depend. While each landowner and land manager’s inuence may be small, good practices add up across the watershed. By adopting the management practices outlined in this guide, together we can help ensure we have plenty of clear, clean water and healthy diverse habitats for wildlife and people.© April 2025